From Gothic to Zen: Comparing medieval Western and Eastern wooden sculptures

The art of wood sculpture, prevalent in both medieval Europe and East Asia, offers a fascinating study in contrasts and similarities. While both regions developed rich traditions in wood carving, their cultural, religious, and artistic trajectories shaped distinct styles and themes. After discussing the legacy of European medieval wood sculptures in the previous post, I’d now like to examine some differences and parallels between medieval European and East Asian wooden sculptures. I will again accompany the discussion by selected sculptures I photographed during my latest visits to museums.

Neuerburg Crucifix, 2nd half of the 11th cent., Willow (corpus), poplar (arms), polychromy. Museum Schnütgen, Cologne.

Bodhisattva Guanyin in royal sitting posture, wood, painted in color, China, Song/Yuan dynasty, 12th/13th century.

Religious and cultural influences

In medieval Europe, wood sculptures were predominantly influenced by Christianity. These works often depicted biblical scenes, saints, and Christ, serving both as objects of worship and as didactic tools. In contrast, East Asian wood sculptures were shaped by a variety of religious traditions, including Buddhism, Shintoism, and Taoism. This diversity is reflected in the range of subjects, from Buddhist deities and bodhisattvas to mythological creatures and revered ancestors.

Artistic techniques and styles

European medieval wood sculptures are characterized by their detailed realism, especially in the Gothic period, with a focus on human emotion and naturalistic details. Artists like Tilman Riemenschneider and Meister Arnt von Kalkar exemplified this approach with their lifelike figures and expressive faces.

East Asian wood sculptures, meanwhile, often emphasized stylized forms and symbolic representation. In Japan, for instance, the Buddhist sculptures (Butsuzō) combined spiritual serenity with intricate detailing, as seen in works from the Kamakura period. Chinese wood sculptures frequently showcased smooth lines and a more generalized portrayal of figures, focusing on conveying the essence of the subject rather than precise anatomical accuracy.

Stylistic developments and innovations

The evolution of styles in both regions reflects their respective artistic and cultural histories. In Europe, the transition from Romanesque to Gothic styles brought about more fluidity and realism in wood sculptures. The Gothic style, with its emphasis on light and shadow, greatly influenced the way sculptors depicted drapery, facial expressions, and postures.

In East Asia, particularly in Japan, China and Korea, the evolution of wood sculpture was closely tied to religious and philosophical changes. The shift from the Tang dynasty to the Song dynasty in China, for example, saw a move towards more introspective and serene representations, aligning with the contemporary spiritual ethos. In Japan, the transition from the Heian to the Kamakura period marked a shift towards more realistic and emotionally resonant Buddhist statuary.

Examples

Expressing serenity and spirituality

Both, East and West, have produced wood sculptures that convey a sense of serenity and spirituality. While approaches and techniques used to achieve this effect may differ, the underlying intention is the same: to create a work of art that inspires contemplation and reflection.

Neuerburg Crucifix, 2nd half of the 11th cent., Willow (corpus), poplar (arms), polychromy. Museum Schnütgen, Cologne.

Bodhisattva Guanyin in royal sitting posture, wood, painted in color, 13th-15th century, China.

Disciples

Sculptures of Buddha’s disciples are common in East Asian art. These figures, often depicted in pairs, represent the monastic virtues and serve as reminders of the Buddha’s teachings. In Europe, the disciples of Christ were also frequently depicted in wood sculptures, particularly in the context of the Passion of Christ. The figures of St. John and the Virgin Mary, for instance, were often placed on either side of the crucifixion scene.

St. James the Greater (left) and St. James the Less (right) from the Altar of the Poor Clares in Cologne Cathedral, Cologne, c. 1360. Museum Schnütgen, Cologne.

Bronze, cast, gilt, China, Ming dynasty, Chongzhen period (1628-44). While not made of wood, this sculpture is a good example of how Buddha’s disciples were depicted in East Asia. Young Ananda and old Kashyapa count among the closest followers of the historical Buddha. They represent the monastic virtues. Imperial inscriptions on the pedestals, rendered almost illegible over time, prove that the pieces were commissioned by the court in the Chongzhen period. Museum for East Asian Art, Cologne.

Narrative sculptures

As said, medieval European wood sculptures often depicted biblical scenes, saints, and Christ, serving both as objects of worship and as didactic tools. Unlike East Asian wood sculpture, which favors a more subtle, indirect mode of expression, this resulted in a much more direct, offensive narrative pictorial expression.

Crucifixion (Calvary), Southern Netherlands, c. 1430-1440, Oak, polychrome. Museum Schnütgen, Cologne.

The Foot-Washing, Master of Viborg, Antwerp, c. 1515-1520, Oak, polychromy. Museum Schnütgen, Cologne.

Standing Bosatsu (Bodhisattva, left), Japan, Heian period, 10th - 12th c., wood. Humboldt Forum, Berlin.

Expressing compassion

Expressions of compassion are common in both European and East Asian wood sculptures. In Europe, the Virgin Mary was often depicted with a tender, maternal expression, conveying her compassion for humanity. In East Asia, the bodhisattvas, particularly Avalokiteshvara (Kannon in Japan and Guanyin in China), were frequently portrayed with a compassionate gaze, reflecting their role as compassionate saviors.

Our Lady of Sorrows from a Triumphal Crucifixion, Estern Alps, c. 1220-1230, Beech, polychrome. The mourning Mary was once part of a triumphal cross group. Triumphal cross groups were part of the furnishing repertoire of high-ranking churches. They were placed on a wooden triumphal beam in the choir arch at the interface between the choir and the laity area and dominated the interior of the church, visible from afar. As a sign of mourning, Mary has gently placed her left hand on the cheek of the bowed head. Museum Schnütgen, Cologne.

Eleven-headed Kannon, Japanese cypress (hinoki) with gilding, late Heian period, 12th century, Japan. Museum for East Asian Art, Cologne.

Madonna Enthroned with the depiction of a praying Poor Clare on its base, Cologne, ca. 1340, Walnut, polychromy; figure of the infant Jesus and crown lost; there is a (now empty) reliquary compartment on the back. Madonna Enthroned with the depiction of a praying Poor Clare on its base, Cologne, ca. 1340, Walnut, polychromy; figure of the infant Jesus and crown lost. This enthroned Mother of God is missing the Christ Child, whom she supported with her left hand. The attribute in Mary’s right hand is also only partially preserved. It was probably a lily sceptre, of which only the staff remains. The lily sceptre identifies Mary as the Queen of Heaven and is also a symbol of her virginity, as is the white dress with the golden lily pattern. The well-preserved colored frame is still the original medieval painting. The donor of the work, a nun, probably from the Klarenkloster monastery in Cologne, is depicted on the base of the octagonal throne foot. The ladies of this convent community were very wealthy and a whole series of surviving works of art were commissioned by them. The format of the painting of the Virgin Mary suggests that it was intended for private use in the donor’s convent cell. The removable Christ Child is a striking and unusual feature. It is conceivable that the nun, absorbed in prayer, was able to take the child in her arms to cradle it, just like the Mother of God herself. Museum Schnütgen, Cologne.

Seated Bodhisattva Guanyin, willow wood, The remnants of the frame, Shanxi province, China, Liao or Jun dynasty 11th-12th century.

Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara in Water Moon form (Chin. Shuiyue Guanyin), China, Song dynasty (960 - 1279), wood. One representation of Avalokiteshvara shows the bodhisattva seated with the right knee raised and the left leg crossed before the body. This posture represents the Water Moon manifestation, understood as a depiction of the bodhisattva in his personal paradise. Also known as Mount Potalaka, this place was originally thought to be located on an island somewhere south of India. In paintings, this bodhisattva is often shown seated on a rocky ledge above water and below a full moon. Humboldt Forum, Berlin.

Winged creatures

Interestingly, both European and East Asian wood sculptures feature winged creatures. In Europe, angels were often depicted as winged humans, while in East Asia, winged creatures were often depicted as dragons or other mythological creatures. In Christianity, these figures were associated with the divine and the spiritual realm. In Buddhism, they usually functioned as dharma protectors, guarding the Buddhist teachings.

One of two angels as deacons with banderoles, Cologne, c. 1530 Lime, polychromy. As messengers of God, these angels hold Latin banners with biblical quotations calling for confession of sin and repentance. Museum Schnütgen, Cologne.

Karura, wood with remnants of gesso and colour, Japan, Meiji period (1868-1912). Karura is a deified bird-like creature with its roots in Hindu mythology. When Karura was adopted into the Buddhist pantheon, it became one of the protectors of the Buddhist faith. This sculpture is a replica of a famous 13th century national treasure in the Sanjūsangendō Temple in Kyōto where it is protecting the 1000 Armed bodhisattva Kannon, the goddess of compassion and mercy. Museum for East Asian Art, Cologne.

Cherubim with a dharmachakra?

By chance, a wheel resembling a dharmachakra has been worked into the feet of these two wonderful Cologne cherubs. This is rather a coincidence, as the dharmachakra or dharma wheel is a symbol of the Buddha’s teachings and the path to enlightenment. The cherubim, on the other hand, are angels from the Jewish-Christian tradition.

Two Cherubim, Cologne, c. 1230 Oak, polychromy. In the Middle Ages, the cherubim belonged to the highest orders of angels and were considered to be particularly close to the throne of God. Two pairs of wings that cross in front of the bodies of these cherubim make it look as though they are wrapped in a robe of feathers. Probably a third pair of wings was crossed over their backs. Although oxidised to black today, the polychrome layer of gold-lacquered silver once gave the figures a sumptuous aspect reminiscent of works of goldsmith’s art. The plumage and the winged wheels on which the two figures stand are motifs that already feature in the angel figures on the shrine of St. Maurinus. Perhaps these cherubim can also be imagined as guardian figures on either side of a shrine. Museum Schnütgen, Cologne.

Divine figures

Sculpturing divine figures was a common practice in both Europe and East Asia. In Europe, Christ and the Virgin Mary were often depicted in wood sculptures, while in East Asia, the Buddha and bodhisattvas were frequently portrayed. Both regions depicted their highest religious figures with great reverence and attention to detail, often using precious materials such as gold and silver. But the sculptures differed greatly in the way they were expressed and the message they were intended to convey. Christianity, which is anchored in death, the approaching end of the world and the sin of everyone, is expressed in the suffering of Christ and the Virgin Mary. Buddhism, on the other hand, is based on the idea of the transience of all things and the possibility of liberation from suffering. This is expressed in the serene and peaceful facial expressions of the Buddha and the bodhisattvas.

Torso of a Crucifix from a Deposition from the Cross, Cologne (?), c. 1230-1240, Oak, polychromy. Museum Schnütgen, Cologne.

Maniushri on his lion, Japan, c. 1800, wood with gilding, dry lacquer, and polychromy; glass. Bodhisattva Manjushri is revered as a mentor and teacher who helps believers in their quest for knowledge. Manjushri - which means the “graceful and venerable” - sits in a relaxed pose on his mount, the lion. Because he embodies the wisdom of Buddha, he holds a scroll in his left hand. The sword he originally held in his right hand, with which he symbolically slashes the fog of ignorance preventing enlightenment, has been lost. Humboldt Forum, Berlin.

Christ as a prisoner, led in front of the people by Pontius Pilate (Ecce homo), South Germany, Ist half of the 17th cent., Boxwood. Standing on a small grass plinth in a fragile crotch position, the man visibly marked by his suffering almost as if his bony legs could hardly bear the weight of his maltreated body. The carver has depicted the emaciated body of Christ, clad only in a loosely wrapped loincloth, in an almost mannered exaggeration: The abdominal area is extremely drawn in and the ribcage, sternum, spine and shoulder blades are clearly visible beneath the taut surface of the skin. A network of veins covers the arms and legs. In contrast, the expressive head, adorned with a voluminous crown of thorns and raised above the left shoulder, appears almost oversized. The upward gaze from the deeply drilled pupils lends the perfectly composed work of art a captivating and at the same time frightening expression. Museum Schnütgen, Cologne.

Bodhisattva Kshitigarbha, Japan, c. 1850, Wood with gilding, dry lacquer, and polychromy; metal. The Bodhisattva Kshitigarbha is depicted as a monk with shaven head. Supporting his head with his right hand, he sits in a relaxed pose on a lotus throne in a rocky landscape. His almost closed eyes indicate the deep meditation through which he liberates the dead from the hells and leads them to Buddha Amitabha’s “Western Pure Land”. Three flaming wish-fulfilling jewels adorn his radiant nimbus. The figure originally held a wish-fulfilling jewel and a pilgrim’s staff. Humboldt Forum, Berlin.

Oversized visualizations

Monumental sculptures can be found both in Europe and East Asia. In Europe, these sculptures were often placed in churches and cathedrals, while in East Asia, they were often placed in temples. In both regions, these sculptures were intended to inspire awe and reverence in the viewer.

Mourning Virgin and St. John from the Triumphal Crucifixion from Sonnenburg, Puster Valley (South Tyrol), late 12th cent., Stone pine, polychrome. Museum Schnütgen, Cologne.

Student of the Buddha (Sanskrit: arhat). Author not documented, (China), Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), wood, lacquered and painted, with gold plating. Both wooden sculptures probably belonged to a larger group of figures of students of the Buddha. In China’s Chan Buddhist temples, special halls were dedicated to such groups. The relaxed sitting pose and the facial expression of the figures indicate that the monks were free of all social constraints. Thus monasticism is idealized as the path of liberation. Humboldt Forum, Berlin.

The floating wood

Wood as the underlying material can become a “fluid” mass in the hands of the artists, which they could shape and form of highest precision and detail. The following sculptures are good examples of this. And this is true for both European and East Asian wood sculptures.

Mary standing on the Earth (Immaculata Conceptio), Parish church of Gerolsheim (Germany), Mid-18th c., limewood. With her foot Mary crushes the serpent coiling around the globe. The serpent represents the Fall, the Devil, and evil in Christian iconography, and here we see Mary triumphing over evil in the world. Up until the Reformation, the Mother of God was regarded throughout Christendom as humanity’s most important intercessor and a source of solace and hope and is still so regarded in the Catholic Church. She is the patron saint of Bavaria, where this sculpture was created. Humboldt Forum, Berlin.

Raijin (or Raiden) is the god of thunder in the indigenous Shinto religion of Japan. This deity is often found in temples, accompanied by the wind god Fujin, their origins go back to ancient times. It was believed that Raijin and Fujin controlled rain and wind, they therefore played a major role in the success of the harvest and general prosperity. Both offer protection against natural disasters such as typhoons and fires. From the 8th century Rajin has been incorporated into the Japanese Buddhist pantheon as well. This sculpture dating from the 19th century is a replica of the famous 13th century national treasure in the Sanjusangendo Temple in Kyoto, In 1871, the Japanese government ordered the classification and documentation of key Shinto and Buddhist statues and commissioned famous sculptors to produce accurate copies like this one. Museum for East Asian Art, Cologne.

Conclusion

In both medieval Europe and East Asia, wood sculptures were more than mere artistic expressions. They were integral to religious and cultural life. European sculptures adorned cathedrals and churches, reinforcing Christian narratives and values. In East Asia, wood sculptures served not only as religious icons but also as embodiments of cultural and philosophical ideals.

The comparison of medieval European and East Asian wood sculptures reveals a rich artistic expression, shaped by diverse cultural and religious influences. While European sculptures from this period often focused on realism and emotional depth, East Asian sculptures tended to emphasize stylization and symbolic representation. These differences underscore the varied paths through which human creativity and devotion have been expressed throughout history, offering a deeper understanding of the world’s artistic heritage.

References and further reading

• Ive Covaci, Kamakura - Realism And Spirituality In The Sculpture Of Japan, 2016, Yale University Press, ISBN: 9780300215779
• Scuderie del Quirinale, Capolavori della scultura buddhista giapponese, 2016, exhbition catalog urlꜛ
• Gabriele Fahr-Becker, Ostasiatische Kunst, 2011, Ullmann, ISBN: 9783833160998
• Danielle Elisseeff, Vadime Elisseeff, Art Of Japan, 1985, ABRAMS, ISBN: 9780810906426
• Adele Schlombs, Sybille Girmond, Meisterwerke aus China, Korea und Japan, 1995, Prestel, ISBN: 9783791314945
• Uta Werlich, Entdeckung Korea! - Schätze aus deutschen Museen, 2011, The Korea Foundation, ISBN: 9788986090413
• Ulrike Bergmann, Schnütgen-Museum: Die Holzskulpturen des Mittelalters (1000-1400), 1989, Hrsg.: Anton Legner, Druckerei Locher GmbH, 5000 Köln 51
• Reinhard Karrenbrock, Schnütgen-Museum: Die Holzskulpturen des Mittelalters II. (1400-1540), 2001, Hrsg.: Hiltrud Westermann-Angerhausen
• Manuela Beer, Moritz Woelk, Museum Schnütgen - Handbuch zur Sammlung, 2018, Hirmer, ISBN: 9783777428932
• Museum Schnütgen, Das Mittelalter in 111 Meisterwerken aus dem Museum Schnütgen Köln, 2003, Greven, ISBN: 9783774303416
• Rainer Budde, Albert Hirmer, Irmgard Ernstmeier-Hirmer, Deutsche romanische Skulptur, 1050-1250, 1979, Hirmer, ISBN: 9783777430904
• Tobias Kunz, Bildwerke nördlich der Alpen 1050 bis 1380 - Kritischer Bestandskatalog der Berliner Skulpturensammlung, 2014, Michael Imhof Verlag, ISBN: 9783865689269
• Tobias Kunz, Bildwerke nördlich der Alpen und im Alpenraum 1380 bis 1440 - Kritischer Bestandskatalog der Berliner Skulpturensammlung, 2019, Michael Imhof Verlag, ISBN: 9783731907558
• Matthias Weniger, Tilmann Riemenschneider, 2016, Michael Imhof Verlag, ISBN: 9783731904755
• Guido De Werd, Moritz Woelk, Arnt, der Bilderschneider - Meister der beseelten Skulpturen, 2020, Hirmer, ISBN: 9783777434926
• Michael Grandmontagne, Tobias Kunz, Skulptur um 1300 - Zwischen Paris und Köln, 2016, Michael Imhof Verlag, ISBN: 9783731904243
• Jürgen Kaiser, Florian Monheim, Gotik im Rheinland, 2011, Greven, ISBN: 9783774304833
• Julien Chapuis, Svea Janzen, Stephan Kemperdick, Lothar Lambacher, Jan Friedrich Richter, Michael Roth, Late Gothic - The Birth Of Modernity, 2021, Hatje Cantz Verlag, ISBN: 9783775747547