Ancient sculptures in color: Revisiting Greek and Roman polychromy

For centuries, the prevailing image of ancient Greek and Roman sculpture has been one of pure white marble, stripped of any decorative elements or applied colors. This perception is still widespread today, shaping how the European classical world is imagined in museums, schoolbooks, and popular culture. Yet this idea is fundamentally misleading. During my recent visit to the Liebieghaus Skulpturensammlung in Frankfurt, the exhibition Bunte Götter (“Painted Gods”) offered a striking correction to this misconception. Based on decades of research into the original polychromy of ancient sculpture, the exhibition highlights both the scientific findings and the ideological roots of the “white marble myth”. Here are some impressions and insights I collected during my visit.

Scientific colour reconstruction of the so-called Megacles-Sphinx, Vinzenz Brinkmann and Ulrike Koch-Brinkmann, 2023, Marble stucco on PMMA, natural pigments in egg tempera, gold foil (gilded copper), Original: Greece, 530 BCE, marble, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

The myth of white antiquity

The belief in colorless, pure marble sculptures can be traced back to the Renaissance, when ancient statues were unearthed in a largely weathered, monochrome state. Renaissance artists and scholars, enamored with the idea of “pure form”, projected their own aesthetic ideals onto these works. This bias was reinforced in the 18th and 19th centuries, when classical antiquity became a key reference point for European identity and cultural superiority.

Torso of a Triton figure, Greece, 2nd c. BCE, marble.

As the exhibition text explains, this image of a “white antiquity” was not simply a misunderstanding, but was actively perpetuated well into the 20th century. In particular, the association between whiteness, purity, and intellectual superiority was strategically emphasized within the context of European colonialism and racism. Non-European cultures were often framed as “primitive” or “naive” due to their vibrant use of color, while the “rational” Greeks and Romans were imagined as creating exclusively in white marble. This narrative, though historically false, aligned conveniently with ideologies of white supremacy.

Tracing ancient colors: The Liebieghaus Polychromy Research Project

Since 1981, the Liebieghaus Polychromy Research Projectꜛ has been systematically investigating the actual color traces preserved on ancient sculptures and architectural fragments. By combining multi-spectral imaging, chemical pigment analysis, and microscopic surface inspection, researchers have identified a wide palette of colors originally applied to both marble and bronze sculptures. This includes vivid reds, blues, greens, and golds—often combined in intricate patterns and complex designs.

Relief of Mithras killing a bull, Rome, CE ca. 200, Gilded stucco, with poly-chrome paint traces.

Starting in 1990, the team began creating experimental reconstructions, reconstructing the original color schemes based on scientific evidence. These reconstructions were first shown to the public in 2003/2004 in exhibitions in Munich, the Vatican Museums, and Copenhagen. The project later toured globally, with notable stops at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and other major institutions. In total, these reconstructions have reached an estimated audience of four million visitors—challenging long-held assumptions about ancient art at a global scale.

A highlight from the exhibition: The polychrome Medusa head

One particularly striking example from the exhibition is the reconstructed head of Medusa, originally from a Greek tomb in Naples. In its polychrome reconstruction, the Medusa head is almost unrecognizable to modern eyes trained to expect neutral stone surfaces. Instead, we see brightly painted facial features, vivid hair, and intricate ornamental details, all carefully recreated based on pigment analysis of the original find. This example drives home the point: ancient sculpture was not intended to be seen as “pure form” but rather as a fully sensory experience, combining shape, color, and often additional materials like metal attachments or glass inlays.

Unfortunately, I didn’t had much time when I visited the exhibition, so I missed the Medusa head. However, I was able to other color reconstructions, which were equally impressive:

Scientific colour reconstruction of Athena from the west pediment of Aphaia Temple, variant B, Vinzenz Brinkmann und and Ulrike Koch-Brinkmann, 2005, plaster cast, natural pigments in egg tempera. Original: Greece, Aegina, ca. 480 BCE, marble, Staatliche Antikensammlungen und Glyptothek, Munich. Two holes on the chest were intended for attaching a gorgoneion (a Gorgon’s head; Gorgon was a mythical creature with snakes for hair).

Sciendific colour reconstruction of a portrait of Emperor Gaius Julus Caesar Augustus Germanicus, called Caligula, variant B, Vinzenz Brinkmann and Ultke Koch-Brinkmann, Sylvia Kellner, 2005, Synthetic marble, natural pigments in egg tempera. Original: Italy, Rome, marble, 1st c. CE.

Copies of Greek and Roman statues colored according to scientific specifications.

Copies of Greek and Roman statues colored according to scientific specifications.

Copies of Greek and Roman statues colored according to scientific specifications.

Copies of Greek and Roman statues colored according to scientific specifications.

Copies of Greek and Roman statues colored according to scientific specifications.

Scientific reconstruction as a form of cultural critique

The work of the Liebieghaus team is not just a technical exercise; it also serves a critical function in reassessing how the ancient world is framed in public discourse. By demonstrating the vibrant polychromy of Greek and Roman art, the project dismantles outdated eurocentric myths about “rational” whiteness and “irrational” colorfulness. This critical perspective is especially important today, given the ongoing misuse of classical imagery in far-right and nationalist contexts.

Conclusion

The Bunte Götter exhibition at the Liebieghaus serves as both a scientific revelation and a cultural intervention. It shows that the ancient Mediterranean was a multicolored world, where sculpture functioned not as a pure expression of abstract form, but as part of a rich sensory environment closely tied to religious, political, and social life. Revisiting ancient polychromy is therefore not just about better understanding antiquity — it is about re-evaluating modern Europe’s relationship with its self-constructed past.

References and further reading

• Michael Siebler, „Die Farben der Muse“ – Begleitpublikation zur Ausstellung „Bunte Götter“, 2020, Liebigshaus Skulpturensammlung, ISBN: 9783943215151
• Vinzenz Brinkmann, Bunte Götter: Die Farbigkeit antiker Skulptur, 2004, Staatliche Antikensammlung u. Glyptothek, ISBN: 978-3933200082
• Vinzenz Brinkmann, Zurück zur Klassik – ein neuer Blick auf das Alte Griechenland: eine Ausstellung der Liebieghaus Skulpturensammlung, Frankfurt am Main, 8. Februar bis 26. Mai 2013, 2013, Hirmer, ISBN: 9783943215021
• Vinzenz Brinkmann, Athen - Triumph der Bilder, 2016, Michael Imhof Verlag, ISBN: 9783731903000
• Vinzenz Brinkmann, Maraike Bückling, Stefan Roller, Meisterwerke im Liebieghaus, 2008, Imhof, ISBN: 9783865683649
• Vinzenz Brinkmann, Medeas Liebe - und die Jagd nach dem Goldenen Vlies: eine Ausstellung der Liebieghaus Skulpturensammlung, Frankfurt am Main, 5. Oktober 2018-10. Februar 2019, 2018, Hirmer Verlag GmbH, ISBN: 9783777431147
• Website of the Liebieghaus Polychromy Research Projectꜛ