How the Roman Empire laid the foundations for Western civilization

The Roman Empire stands as one of the most influential civilizations in history, leaving a profound legacy that continues to shape modern society. From groundbreaking innovations in infrastructure and engineering to advancements in governance, education, and science, the Romans demonstrated an unparalleled ability to adapt and expand upon the knowledge of other cultures. Their achievements not only transformed the ancient world but also laid critical foundations for the development of Western civilization. In this post, we explore the civilizational and scientific developments introduced or disseminated by the Romans, whether original inventions, adaptations, or further enhancements, showcasing how their contributions have endured through time.

According to legend, Rome was founded by Romulus and Remus, who were raised by a she-wolf. The secenery depicted in this bronze sculpture has become an iconic symbol of Rome’s legendary origins. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 1.0)

This post is mainly based on Richard Carrier’s 2017 book “The Scientist in the Early Roman Empire”, which is a sequel to his 2016 book “Science Education in the Early Roman Empire”. Carrier’s books are based on his Ph.D. thesis in ancient history, which he completed in 2008 at Columbia University. Carrier is a historian, philosopher, and author who specializes in ancient history, the origins of Christianity, and the history of science. Many of my recent posts are based on his books, which provide a comprehensive and well-researched analysis of the topics covered. Since my posts can only cover a fraction of the content in his books, I highly recommend reading them for a more in-depth understanding of the subjects discussed.

Historical overview

Before we begin, let’s provide a brief historical overview of the Roman Empire, highlighting key periods and events that shaped its development.

The origins of Rome (c. 753 – 509 BCE)

According to legend, Rome was founded in 753 BCE by Romulus, who, along with his twin brother Remus, was said to be the son of the god Mars and a descendant of the Trojan prince Aeneas. Archaeological evidence, however, suggests that the region was inhabited by Latin-speaking peoples well before the 8th century BCE, with settlements developing along the Tiber River.

Modern reconstruction of the marshy conditions of early Rome, along with a conjectural placement of the early settlement and its fortifications. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: puclib domain)

The early Roman kings, particularly the later ones, were heavily influenced by the Etruscans, a neighboring civilization in central Italy known for its advanced engineering, religious practices, and urban organization. The Etruscans ruled over Rome for a period, contributing to its political and military structures, until they were overthrown in 509 BCE, marking the beginning of the Roman Republic.

The Roman Republic and its expansion (509 BCE – 27 BCE)

The Republic was governed by elected magistrates, a Senate composed of aristocrats, and popular assemblies. While ostensibly a mixed government balancing democracy, oligarchy, and autocracy, real power increasingly lay in the hands of the senatorial class.

Roman expansion in Italy from 500 to 218 BCE through the Latin War (light red), Samnite Wars (pink/orange), Pyrrhic War (beige), and First and Second Punic wars (yellow and green). Cisalpine Gaul (238–146 BCE) and Alpine valleys (16–7 BCE) were later added. The Roman Republic in 500 BCE is marked with dark red. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain)

Rome rapidly expanded through military conquests and strategic alliances. Key conflicts include:

• The Latin Wars (5th–4th centuries BCE): Rome consolidated control over the Latin tribes.
• The Samnite Wars (343–290 BCE): Rome expanded into central Italy, subjugating the Samnites.
• The Pyrrhic War (280–275 BCE): Rome asserted dominance over southern Italy, defeating the Greek general Pyrrhus.
• The Punic Wars (264–146 BCE): A series of wars against Carthage, culminating in Rome’s complete destruction of the city and its emergence as the dominant Mediterranean power.
• The Macedonian and Seleucid Wars (3rd–2nd centuries BCE): Rome extended its influence over Greece and Asia Minor.
• The Social War (91–88 BCE) and Civil Wars (1st century BCE): Internal conflicts between Rome and its Italian allies led to the expansion of Roman citizenship, while power struggles between generals like Marius, Sulla, Pompey, and Julius Caesar destabilized the Republic.
• Julius Caesar’s Civil War (49–45 BCE): A decisive conflict between Caesar and the senatorial forces led by Pompey, resulting in Caesar’s dictatorship.

Julius Caesar’s rise and assassination in 44 BCE precipitated the Republic’s final collapse, leading to the rise of his heir Octavian (later Augustus) as the first emperor in 27 BCE.

The extent of the Roman Republic in 40 BCE after Caesar’s conquests. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain)

The Roman Empire: Expansion and stabilization (27 BCE – 180 CE)

Under Augustus, Rome transitioned into an imperial state with centralized power. The empire reached its territorial height under Emperor Trajan (98–117 CE), spanning from Britain to the Middle East. Significant military campaigns included:

• Augustus’ consolidation (27 BCE – 14 CE): Expansion into Spain, the Balkans, and securing the eastern frontier.
• Germanic Wars (9 CE): The catastrophic Battle of the Teutoburg Forest halted Roman expansion into Germania.
• Dacian Wars (101–106 CE): Trajan’s conquest of Dacia (modern Romania).
• Parthian Wars (various periods): Conflicts with the Parthian Empire over Armenia and Mesopotamia.

The maximum extent of the Roman Empire (red) under Trajan (117 BCE) together with its client states (pink). Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0)

This period, known as the Pax Romana, saw economic prosperity, urbanization, and legal standardization, with the construction of roads, aqueducts, and monumental architecture.

Crisis and transformation (180 CE – 476 CE)

The death of Marcus Aurelius in 180 CE marked the beginning of the empire’s gradual decline. Key crises included:

• The Crisis of the Third Century (235–284 CE): Civil wars, economic decline, and external invasions nearly led to the empire’s collapse.
• Diocletian’s Reforms (r. 284–305 CE): The empire was divided into Eastern and Western halves to improve administration.
• Constantine the Great (r. 306–337 CE): Engaged in a series of civil wars to consolidate power, ultimately reuniting the Roman Empire under his rule. He legalized Christianity and moved the capital to Byzantium (renamed Constantinople).
• Barbarian Invasions (4th–5th centuries CE): Germanic tribes, Huns, and Persians put increasing pressure on Rome.
• Justinian I’s Attempted Restoration (527–565 CE): The Byzantine emperor Justinian I temporarily reconquered parts of the former Western Roman Empire, including Italy and North Africa, in an effort to restore Roman rule, though these gains were short-lived.

Barbarian invasions of the Roman Empire from 100-500 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 2.5)

In 476 CE, the Western Roman Empire formally ended when the last emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed by the Germanic chieftain Odoacer. The Eastern Roman Empire, known as Byzantium, continued for nearly a millennium until its fall to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

The Roman Empire in 476 CE, with the remains of the Western empire in violet and the Eastern empire in red. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0)

The adaptability of the Romans

One of the key factors behind the Roman Empire’s long survival and prosperity was its ability to assimilate and integrate the cultures, knowledge, and technologies of conquered peoples. Rather than imposing a rigid identity, Rome selectively absorbed and enhanced the customs, beliefs, and innovations of the diverse civilizations it subjugated.

Cultural and religious integration played a crucial role in stabilizing the empire. The Romans adopted deities, artistic styles, and philosophical traditions from Greek, Egyptian, and Persian societies, weaving them into a broader Roman identity. They frequently syncretized foreign gods with their own, promoting religious harmony among different populations.

Technological and scientific advancements were also absorbed and refined. The Romans borrowed architectural techniques from the Etruscans, mathematical principles from the Greeks, and medical practices from the Egyptians, developing them further to suit their own infrastructural and military needs. This allowed them to build aqueducts, roads, and city layouts that remained functional for centuries.

Roman law evolved to accommodate local customs, ensuring smoother administration across a vast empire. By granting provincial populations a degree of legal and administrative autonomy while integrating them into the Roman system, the empire was able to maintain stability and loyalty.

The economic prosperity of Rome was sustained through the expansion of trade networks, incorporating the established commerce of conquered regions. This facilitated a steady flow of goods, manpower, and resources that fueled the empire’s economy and military endeavors.

This unparalleled capacity to integrate, refine, and expand upon the achievements of others contributed to Rome’s resilience, enabling it to govern a vast and diverse empire for centuries.

Civilizational and scientific contributions of the Romans

The Roman Empire’s enduring legacy is evident in its numerous contributions to civilization and science. From advancements in infrastructure and urban planning to innovations in governance, education, and medicine, the Romans left an indelible mark on Western culture. Their ability to adapt, refine, and disseminate knowledge from diverse sources laid the foundations for many aspects of modern society. In the following, we explore the key areas in which the Romans excelled and the lasting impact of their achievements. Of course, this list is not exhaustive. For a more comprehensive understanding, I recommend reading Richard Carrier’s books “The Scientist in the Early Roman Empire” and “Science Education in the Early Roman Empire” and other sources listed in the references.

Infrastructure and urban planning

The Roman Empire revolutionized infrastructure and urban planning, establishing standards that have influenced civilizations for centuries. Their ability to integrate engineering prowess with urban functionality created a framework for sustainable city development, accommodating both large populations and diverse cultural activities.

Roads

The Roman road system was one of the most remarkable achievements of the ancient world, renowned for its durability and extensive reach. These roads were so well constructed that many still exist 2,000 years later, a testament to Roman engineering. Unlike modern roads, which often deteriorate within a few years, Roman roads were designed to last, demonstrating their advanced understanding of construction techniques and materials.

The Appian Way, one of the oldest and most important Roman roads. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Roman road network was extensive, spanning across the empire, even in minor provinces like Palestine during the early Christian era. Maps of the period reveal a complex system resembling a modern subway map, highlighting the major routes that connected cities and regions. While originally intended for military purposes — to facilitate the rapid movement of troops and supplies — these roads quickly became vital for commerce, communication, and travel. The all-weather, low-friction surfaces enabled efficient cargo transport overland, fostering economic and cultural exchange throughout the empire.

The Roman Empire in the time of Hadrian (r. 117–138), showing the network of main Roman roads. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 4.0)

Maintaining such an extensive network required significant resources. Roman taxes funded the construction and upkeep of the roads, supported by a highly organized administration and a robust economy. Interestingly, the military played a dual role in this system. When not engaged in combat, soldiers were tasked with building and maintaining the roads, effectively combining infrastructure development with military readiness. This dual-purpose approach optimized the use of resources, providing both a formidable military and an unparalleled transportation system.

Aqueducts

The Roman aqueducts represent another monumental achievement in ancient engineering. Originally a Greek invention, the Romans significantly improved the technology, enabling the urbanization and economic growth of their vast empire. Aqueducts were essential for sustaining large urban centers, such as Rome with its population of over a million people, and Alexandria with approximately 700,000. Even smaller cities, like Jerusalem with populations in the hundreds of thousands, relied on this technology for water supply.

The multiple arches of the Pont du Gard in Roman Gaul (modern-day southern France). The upper tier encloses an aqueduct that carried water to Nimes in Roman times; its lower tier was expanded in the 1740s to carry a wide road across the river. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0)

The ability to transport vast quantities of water over long distances made it possible to support dense populations. Simple street wells were insufficient for the needs of such large cities, and aqueducts ensured a steady flow of clean water for drinking, bathing, and sanitation. This access to water also fueled economic activity, enabling cities to thrive and fostering agricultural expansion through irrigation. Lands that were previously barren could be cultivated, further bolstering the empire’s food supply and economy.

Ruins of the Aqua Anio Vetus, a Roman aqueduct built in 272 BCE. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 2.0)

Roman aqueducts were constructed with advanced engineering techniques and materials, including innovative concretes and mortars whose secrets were lost during the Middle Ages. Some of these structures, such as the Pont du Gard in France, have endured for over two millennia, serving as a testament to their durability and ingenuity. The Pont du Gard, for example, functioned both as an aqueduct and a roadway, illustrating the Romans’ practical approach to infrastructure.

One of the most impressive features of Roman aqueducts was their use of the inverted siphon. This ingenious system utilized water pressure to move water uphill without additional energy, allowing the Romans to defy natural topography. Concrete or clay pipes ran through these siphons, enabling water to travel across valleys or uphill slopes. The remains of many such systems can still be found today, showcasing the Romans’ mastery over hydraulic engineering and their willingness to “defy nature” in pursuit of progress.

Siphon principle. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0)

Sanitation and public health

Roman advancements in sanitation and public health set new standards for urban living. Their sophisticated sewer systems, such as the Cloaca Maxima in Rome, were designed to efficiently remove waste from cities and are still remarkably intact after 2,000 years. These systems greatly improved urban hygiene, reducing the risk of disease and enhancing the quality of life for residents.

Double latrine at the Roman ruins of Timgad in Algeria. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Romans also popularized and improved upon the Greek concept of public baths, turning them into widespread cultural institutions. Public toilets, another Roman innovation, featured advanced designs, including the use of sponges on sticks as a precursor to modern toilet paper. Additionally, they adopted soap — originally a German innovation — and spread its use throughout the empire, promoting personal hygiene.

Bulla Regia, inside the thermal baths. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 4.0)

In the medical field, Romans made strides in antiseptic practices. They understood the importance of cleaning wounds, instruments, and hands, even if they did not yet grasp the full concept of germ theory. Substances like honey, turpentine, and pitch were used as antiseptics, while honey and vinegar were also employed for food preservation. These methods helped to store provisions for long periods, which was critical for both urban populations and military campaigns.

Roman architects and engineers further contributed to public health by designing cities with climate considerations in mind. Urban layouts accounted for prevailing winds and sunlight, ensuring better ventilation and reducing health hazards. This holistic approach to sanitation and public health was integral to the success of Roman cities and became a model for future urban planning.

Urbanization

Urbanization in the Roman Empire reached unprecedented levels, made possible by innovations such as aqueducts and advanced sanitation systems. These technologies allowed cities like Rome to grow to populations exceeding one million and supported other major urban centers such as Alexandria and Jerusalem. Without the ability to deliver clean water and maintain public health, cities of this scale would have been unsustainable.

The cities of the Roman world in the Imperial period. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 4.0)

The decline of urbanization after the fall of the Western Roman Empire highlights the significance of these advancements. By the Middle Ages, many cities lost their populations due to the collapse of infrastructure, including aqueducts and sewage systems. This decline, driven by a lack of technological and economic maintenance, led to widespread starvation and a population reduction across Europe and the Mediterranean.

Roman urbanization was not limited to population density but also extended to city planning. Roman cities were meticulously organized, with forums, amphitheaters, and marketplaces serving as hubs of activity. Streets were laid out in grids, and urban design incorporated innovations in ventilation, light, and climate adaptation, ensuring healthier and more livable environments.

A plan of Calleva Atrebatum, an Iron Age oppidum (fortified settlement) which was the capital of the Atrebates tribe in the Roman province of Britannia. It became a walled Roman town at a major crossroads of the roads of southern Britain. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain)

The Roman approach to urbanization created centers of cultural, economic, and administrative significance, setting a standard for city development that influenced later civilizations. Their cities became the blueprint for modern urban planning, blending functionality with architectural grandeur.

Architecture

Roman architecture represents a synthesis of innovation, functionality, and artistic expression. Combining influences from Greek, Etruscan, and their own ingenuity, the Romans developed architectural forms and construction techniques that have shaped the built environment for millennia.

Innovations in materials: Roman Concrete

One of the most iconic Roman innovations was the widespread use of concrete. This versatile material allowed for the construction of massive and durable structures, including the Colosseum, aqueducts, and bath complexes. Roman concrete — or opus caementicium — offered flexibility in design, enabling the creation of large domes and vaults, such as the Pantheon’s dome, which remains the largest unreinforced concrete dome in the world.

The Pantheon in Rome is an example of Roman concrete construction. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0)

Structural advancements: The arch, vaults, and domes

The Roman arch was another transformative innovation. By distributing weight more effectively than traditional post-and-lintel systems, arches made possible the construction of expansive bridges, aqueducts, and monumental gateways. This principle was further developed into vaults and domes, which allowed for grand, open interior spaces.

The dome of the Pantheon (here: inner view) is still the largest unreinforced concrete dome in the world. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 2.0)

Urban design and public spaces

Urban planning also benefited from Roman architectural advances. Structures like forums, amphitheaters, and basilicas served as focal points for civic, cultural, and commercial activities. Amphitheaters like the Colosseum became prototypes for modern sports stadiums, while the basilica — originally a public building for administration — influenced the design of Christian churches.

Top: The Forum Romanum: view facing north east from above the Portico Dii Consentes. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0) – Bottom: Plan of the Forum. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 1.0)

Residential architecture: Insulae and domus

Innovations in housing included the development of insulae (apartment buildings) to accommodate urban populations and domus (private homes) for the wealthy. These structures incorporated features like atriums, courtyards, and hypocaust systems for heating, reflecting the Romans’ attention to comfort and aesthetics.

Insula in Ostia Antica. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain)

Infrastructure and monuments

Roman architects also prioritized infrastructure, with aqueducts, roads, and bridges showcasing their ability to blend utility with beauty. Monuments like triumphal arches and columns celebrated military victories and conveyed imperial propaganda, leaving a lasting cultural legacy.

The Arch of Titus in Rome, an early Roman imperial triumphal arch with a single archway, built c. 81 CE by Emperor Domitian to commemorate his brother Titus’s victory together with their father, Vespasian, over the Jewish rebellion in Judaea. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 2.0)

Influence on later architecture

Roman architecture’s influence is evident in subsequent periods, particularly during the Renaissance and Neoclassical eras, when architects revived Roman principles and aesthetics. Today, the enduring legacy of Roman architecture is visible in countless public buildings, bridges, and monuments around the world.

The inner courtyard of Palazzo Strozzi, Florence. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0)

Governance and society

The Roman Empire is often credited with establishing peace and public order across a vast and diverse territory. While their methods were sometimes harsh and unethical, the underlying systems they implemented provided valuable frameworks for maintaining stability. Roman governance combined military might with effective administration, creating an environment in which cities could thrive and commerce could flourish. The Pax Romana, or “Roman Peace”, is a hallmark of this era, exemplifying the benefits of a centralized and organized state.

Top: The global situation during the Pax Augusta around the year 50 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain) – Bottom: Ara Pacis, an altar dedicated to Pax, the Roman goddess of peace, in Rome. Source: [Wikimedia Commons](https://w.wiki/CtcZ)ꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 4.0)

Roman legal system and its legacy

The Roman legal system laid the foundation for many legal traditions in use today. Although not without flaws, the Roman approach to law emphasized rational standards of evidence and codified procedures. Unlike earlier systems that relied on superstition or arbitrary decisions, Roman courts required factual arguments and evidence. The development of written laws, such as the Twelve Tables, ensured greater consistency and transparency in judicial decisions. These principles influenced legal systems in Europe and beyond, cementing Rome’s legacy in jurisprudence.

Cicero, author of the classic book The Laws, attacks Catiline for attempting a coup in the Roman Senate. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain)

Governance and administration

The concept of democracy, while originating in Greece, was adopted and adapted by the Romans. By the late Republic, Rome exhibited a form of representative government, though it was marred by corruption and the dominance of powerful elites. Despite these shortcomings, the ideals of democracy — debate, representation, and civic engagement — were kept alive through Roman political discourse. Even as the empire transitioned into autocracy, the value of democratic principles continued to be acknowledged, setting the stage for later revivals of democratic governance.

The principate Latin principatus under Augustus, political structures and institutions. As an expression of the actions of the administrative authority (power), people are proposed, elected, appointed and confirmed in office or re-evaluated. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 4.0)

Religious freedom

Religious freedom in the Roman Empire was notably advanced for its time. The state did not generally persecute individuals for their beliefs or the gods they worshiped. However, activities such as unauthorized assemblies could draw Roman scrutiny, as maintaining public order was paramount. This distinction highlights an important facet of Roman governance: the separation of personal belief from political activities.

Temple of the Imperial cult at Vienne. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0)

Cicero’s writings on natural law, rooted in Stoic philosophy, reflect an early conception of universal human rights and duties. He posited that all people share in a common nature under a universal law derived from reason and the natural order, rather than divine revelation. These ideas influenced later concepts of religious tolerance and individual liberty. The Stoic philosopher Zeno’s assertion that all people should be regarded as equal citizens further reinforced this progressive ethos, contributing to modern notions of equality and human rights.

Citizenship, civic duty, public administration, and civil and human rights

Roman citizenship was a revolutionary concept that extended rights and responsibilities to individuals regardless of ethnic or religious background. Citizenship brought with it legal protections, the right to vote (for some), and obligations such as military service and taxation. This inclusive and secular notion of citizenship encouraged loyalty and integration within the empire.

Fragment of a military diploma from around 160 CE and the granting of Roman citizenship as a former soldier of Cohort V Bracaraugustanorum. From the Quintana Museum, Künzing, Germany. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0)

The Romans also emphasized civic duty, inspiring citizens to contribute to the welfare of their communities. Public administration became increasingly sophisticated, with systems for taxation, infrastructure maintenance, and governance that relied on rational and evidence-based methods. Law courts adhered to principles of justice that excluded superstitious practices, ensuring decisions were grounded in observable facts rather than mystical beliefs.

Philanthropy and public welfare were institutionalized under Roman rule. Cities benefitted from public endowments for education, healthcare, and infrastructure, funded either by the state or private benefactors. Concepts like perpetual endowments ensured long-term support for these services. While freedom of speech was not absolute, it was valued, and the suppression of dissent was often criticized, indicating an awareness of its importance.

The Roman emphasis on civic and human rights, even in a limited form, represented a significant step forward for governance. These principles laid the groundwork for many modern concepts of citizenship, public service, and individual freedoms.

Education and knowledge

Education and knowledge were highly valued in Roman society, with advancements in learning and scholarship that influenced Western intellectual traditions. Roman education encompassed a broad curriculum, including literature, philosophy, mathematics, and rhetoric. Libraries, schools, and universities were established throughout the empire, fostering a culture of learning and intellectual inquiry.

Education system

The Roman education system represented a significant leap forward in both accessibility and content. While rooted in Greek educational ideals, the Romans refined and institutionalized these practices, creating a model that profoundly influenced Western education.

Relief found in Neumagen near Trier, a teacher with two discipuli (students) and a puer capsarius (a young slave who carries the schoolbag) (180-185 CE). Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 4.0)

Romans introduced math, science, and logic into the curriculum, elevating the quality of education across the empire. Literacy and numeracy expanded under Roman rule, with estimates suggesting that 10-20% of the population was literate — a notable improvement over earlier periods, where literacy was likely confined to a minuscule elite.

Bronze statuette of a girl reading (1st century CE). Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 2.5)

At higher levels of education, the Romans emphasized logic, reason, and rhetoric. Rhetoric, or the art of persuasion, was particularly valued, serving as both a tool for critical thinking and a defense against manipulation. Mastery of rhetoric enabled individuals to engage in political, legal, and intellectual debates, fostering a culture of reasoned discourse.

The Romans also developed early forms of universities. These institutions featured endowed professorships funded by the state or private benefactors, focusing on fields such as philosophy, literature, and science. Prominent centers of learning included Rome, Athens, and Alexandria, which boasted libraries, lecture halls, and scholarly communities. Public libraries — another Roman innovation — were established throughout the empire, providing access to knowledge for those who were literate.

Reconstruction model of the Bibliotheca Ulpia (“Ulpian Library”) was a Roman library founded by the Emperor Trajan in 114 CE in the Forum of Trajan, located in ancient Rome. It was considered one of the most prominent and famous libraries of antiquity and became a major library in the Western World upon the destruction of the Library of Alexandria in the 3rd century. It is the only Roman library known to have survived until the fall of Rome in the mid-fifth century. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0)

Education was not limited to intellectual pursuits. Roman schools also instilled practical skills and civic virtues, preparing students to participate in public life and governance. By systematizing and spreading education, the Romans laid the groundwork for the development of more formalized educational institutions in the centuries to follow.

Medicine and health sciences

The Romans made groundbreaking contributions to the field of medicine, establishing it as a scientific discipline grounded in evidence and empirical observation. Roman medicine encompassed diverse fields such as anatomy, physiology, pharmacology, and surgical techniques, many of which were significantly advanced for their time.

Relief from a sarcophagus depicting an oculist examining a patient (latter 3rd century CE). Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 4.0)

Roman physicians developed a comprehensive understanding of human, animal, and plant biology. Their studies of anatomy and biomechanics were complemented by practical applications in surgery and pharmacology. Texts such as the “Herbal of Dioscorides” (De materia medica, 50-70 CE, by Pedanius Dioscorides) provided extensive catalogues of medicinal substances, with modern analysis confirming that approximately 20% of the remedies described were effective.

A group of physicians in an image from the Codex of Vienna Dioscurides; Galen is depicted top center, Constantinople around 512 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain)

Advanced surgical techniques and instruments were a hallmark of Roman medicine. Examples include hernia lithotomy procedures, which involved removing kidney stones through minimally invasive techniques, and even successful open-heart surgeries. The Romans also pioneered the use of specialized surgical tools such as the cataract syringe for eye surgeries and bronze catheters for urological procedures. Many of these instruments, recovered from sites like Pompeii, showcase the precision craftsmanship and scientific ingenuity of Roman medical practitioners.

Iapyx removing an arrowhead from Aeneas’ thigh, using a tweezer-like instrument made of metal, Pompeian fresco, 1st century CE. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain)

Medical instrument: bronze windhook and 2 tweezers, found in Nida, a Roman settlement (vicus) near today’s Frankfurt, Germany. Archaeologisches Museum Frankfurt.

The Romans also emphasized hygiene, nutrition, and exercise as critical components of health. Public health measures, such as aqueducts and sewer systems, further demonstrated their commitment to maintaining sanitary conditions across the empire. Hospitals for soldiers (valetudinarium) and public healthcare initiatives provided organized medical care, reflecting the integration of medicine into state policy.

Plan of the valetudinarium (Roman military hospital) found near Düsseldorf, Germany, late 1st century CE. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 4.0)

Roman pharmacology was both innovative and experimental. Physicians like Aulus Cornelius Celsus and Galen explored the use of plant-based and mineral remedies. Experimentation, including animal testing, was employed to refine dosages and ensure the safety of treatments. One notable example is the anesthetic research of Agathinus, who developed weight-based dosing protocols using hellebore, an approach that mirrors modern principles of pharmacology.

Blackberry, Vienna Dioscurides, early 6th century CE. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain)

By prioritizing evidence-based practices and fostering advancements in medical science, the Romans set the stage for many principles that continue to underpin modern medicine.

Science and technology

The Romans made substantial contributions to science, building upon the foundations of Greek and Hellenistic thought. While their methods sometimes included less rigorous approaches, they added crucial tools and values that shaped scientific methodology and discovery.

Roman science emphasized empirical observation and experimentation, combining innovation with practicality. Among their contributions were:

• Innovative use of instruments: The Romans developed and refined instruments for scientific and practical applications, such as the astrolabe and water clocks.
• Repeatable experiments: They emphasized the importance of conducting experiments that could be repeated to verify results.
• Mathematical descriptions and laws: The application of geometry and trigonometry led to accurate calculations of celestial distances and cartographic techniques.
• Logical argumentation: Scientific arguments were built on verified empirical premises, ensuring rational consistency.
• Expert consensus: The Romans sought collaboration among scholars to validate scientific theories and practices.

Roman science was underpinned by three key values:

1. Curiosity as a moral good: Inquiry and exploration were seen as virtuous pursuits.
2. Empiricism as a discovery tool: Evidence held primacy over authority, a revolutionary concept in its time.
3. Belief in progress: They valued the potential for continuous advancement in understanding and technology.

These values led to a rejection of dogmatism, an emphasis on replicable observations, and a clear distinction between science and pseudoscience. Roman scientists acknowledged the potential for error and encouraged future research to refine their findings. By promoting curiosity, empiricism, and progress, the Romans laid the intellectual groundwork for the scientific revolutions that followed.

Geodesy and cartography

Roman scientists calculated the Earth’s circumference to within 10% accuracy, showcasing their advanced understanding of geometry and measurement. They developed the latitude and longitude system, which remains fundamental to modern cartography, and introduced methods for projecting the Earth’s curved surface onto flat maps. Ptolemy’s contributions to cartographic projection were particularly influential, providing a framework that enabled accurate mapping across vast distances.

The Ptolemy world map is a map of the world known to Greco-Roman societies in the 2nd century: Europe, Africa, and Asia (“Sinae” (China) at the extreme right, beyond the island of “Taprobane” (Ceylon or Sri Lanka, oversized) and the “Aurea Chersonesus” (Southeast Asian peninsula)). It is based on the description contained in Ptolemy’s book Geography, written c. 150 CE. The depicted version is a reconstitution from the 15th century. Notable features of Ptolemy’s map is the first use of longitudinal and latitudinal lines as well as specifying terrestrial locations by celestial observations. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain)

Astronomy

Roman scientists recognized the elliptical orbit of the Moon and accurately measured its distance from Earth to within a few thousand miles. They also noted the influence of the Moon and Sun on tides, developing a rudimentary lunisolar tide theory. These insights reflected a deep understanding of celestial mechanics and laid the groundwork for future advances in astronomy.

The Antikythera mechanism was a Greek analog computer from 150–100 BCE designed to calculate the positions of astronomical objects. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0)

Optics

The study of light advanced significantly under Roman scientists like Hero and Ptolemy. They formulated laws of reflection and refraction, explored how light bends through different materials, and began analyzing convex and concave lenses. Their foundational work on optics informed later developments in the field, paving the way for technologies such as magnifying glasses and telescopes.

Hydrostatics

Roman exploration of hydrostatics included the principles of flotation, equilibrium, density, and specific gravity. These discoveries not only improved ship design but also enabled engineering feats like aqueduct siphons, which allowed water to flow uphill. The practical applications of these principles underscore the Romans’ blend of scientific inquiry with engineering prowess.

Pneumatics

Roman scientists studied air and steam, recognizing that hot air expands and cool air contracts. They understood the principle of air pressure as a force, which they applied to develop force pumps, air horns, and innovative automated devices such as theater props and doors. These practical applications of pneumatics illustrate their inventive use of scientific knowledge.

Harmonics and acoustics

Roman contributions to sound science included understanding sound waves, pitch, harmonic resonance, and acoustic design. Female scholars, such as Ptolemaeus, played a key role in advancing these fields. Romans applied their knowledge to improve theater acoustics, ensuring that performances could be clearly heard by audiences in large venues.

Astrophysics

Roman advancements in astrophysics included their lunisolar tide theory, which linked tidal movements to the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun. They discovered the elliptical nature of celestial orbits and documented the precession of the equinoxes, calculating the Earth’s axial wobble over a cycle of 25,800 years. These achievements demonstrated a sophisticated grasp of celestial dynamics.

Mathematics

Romans advanced geometry and trigonometry, including spherical trigonometry, to solve practical and theoretical problems. They explored combinatorics and developed early concepts of algebra, laying the groundwork for probability theory. Much of their mathematical work was later rediscovered and expanded upon during the Renaissance.

Legacy

Roman scientific achievements, while sometimes overlooked in favor of Greek and later European contributions, were foundational to the development of modern science. Their emphasis on empirical observation, mathematical precision, and logical reasoning set a standard for scientific inquiry that continues to shape our understanding of the natural world. By integrating scientific knowledge with practical applications, the Romans established a legacy of innovation that has endured for millennia.

First industrial revolution

The Roman Empire witnessed the world’s first industrial revolution, driven by the integration of scientific knowledge and mechanization. With innovations like water power, they automated various processes, laying the groundwork for industrial advancements.

Water-powered mills were a cornerstone of this revolution. Romans used water wheels to automate tasks such as grinding grain into flour, sawing lumber, and cutting stone. The Barbegal flour mill in southern France, dated to around 115 CE, is a striking example of this innovation. Fed by aqueducts, this system utilized overshot waterwheels to power 16 mills, producing enough flour to feed tens of thousands of people.

Romans also applied water power to:

• Metalworking: Automated ore grinding and hammering.
• Glass production: Probable use of water-driven sand grinders.
• Water pumps: Systems for irrigation and draining mines.
• Mechanical clocks: Public clock towers showcasing automated timekeeping.

Gearing and advanced engineering techniques, such as overshot and undershot waterwheel designs, allowed Romans to manipulate water power efficiently. These innovations represent a level of industrialization that would not be matched until the advent of fossil fuels during the second industrial revolution.

Mining and industry

The Roman Empire achieved remarkable success in mining and industrial production, reaching levels of activity that were unparalleled for centuries. They mined materials such as silver, gold, and lead, which were essential for currency, construction, and various industrial applications. Lead production, in particular, was so extensive that its traces can be found in polar ice cores, providing a historical record of Roman industrial activity.

Entrance to a Roman gold mine. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0)

The peak of Roman mining and smelting occurred around 50 CE, as evidenced by lead deposits in ice core data. This production began to decline significantly after 250 CE, correlating with the collapse of the Roman economy and infrastructure. It wasn’t until the Renaissance, around 1450 CE, that industrial production began to recover to comparable levels.

World production of lead, estimated from Greenland ice cores, peaked in the 1st century CE, and strongly declined thereafter.[14] World production would only surpass Roman levels in the middle of the 18th century. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain)

Roman mining techniques were advanced for their time. They utilized hydraulic mining methods to extract gold from riverbeds and employed large-scale smelting operations to process ore. Innovations in tools and machinery, such as water-powered mills, allowed for greater efficiency and output.

Scheme of a Roman waterwheel. Water needed to be extracted from the mine, and the waterwheel was used to power the lifting mechanism. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0)

Industrial production extended beyond mining. Roman workshops produced a wide range of goods, including pottery, glass, textiles, and metal tools. Their large-scale manufacturing systems were supported by extensive trade networks, which facilitated the distribution of goods across the empire. Shipwreck records reveal the vast scale of Roman maritime trade, with a clear decline during the Dark Ages.

Military and communication

The Roman Empire’s military and communication systems were instrumental in its expansion and governance. Roman military technology and tactics set new standards for warfare, while their communication networks facilitated the efficient administration of a vast empire.

Military technology

The Roman military was renowned for its innovative technologies, which contributed significantly to its dominance over vast territories.

Replica of the armament and equipment of a Roman cavalry soldier around 100 CE. The lance (hasta) and long sword (spatha) were the typical offensive weapons of the Roman cavalry (equites alae). The three javelins (iacula) were carried in quivers hanging from the saddle. The upper body was protected by chain mail (lorica hamata), which consisted of around 30,000 iron rings and weighed 9 kg. Underneath, the soldiers wore two short-sleeved tunics (tunica) made of linen and thick woolen fabric. A neckerchief (focale) protected them from the cold and the impact of weapons. Leather breeches (feminalia) and a hooded cloak made of tumbled wool (paenula) completed the horsemen’s clothing. Like the foot soldiers, the horsemen wore nailed sandals (caligae). The cavalry helmet (cassis, galea) differed from infantry helmets in the 1st century due to its rich decoration. The round shield (clipeus) was protected against moisture and abrasion by a leather cover (tegimentum). The units could be distinguished from one another by the ornamental painting. Personal luggage included a small bronze bucket, a saucepan, spoon and knife for preparing food, as well as a canteen for thirst-quenching, slightly alcoholic vinegar water (posca). A net contained provisions for several days. A nutritious stew could be prepared with grain, bacon and cheese. Archaeologisches Museum Frankfurt.

Roman advancements in weaponry were revolutionary. They refined existing arms and introduced innovative designs such as the pilum, a throwing spear engineered to bend upon impact, preventing enemy reuse. Advanced siege equipment, including the ballista and onager, exemplified their ability to combine engineering with military strategy, allowing them to breach enemy fortifications effectively.

Fortifications were another area of Roman ingenuity. Structures such as Hadrian’s Wall demonstrated their expertise in defensive architecture. These forts and walls were not only robust but also standardized, enabling rapid construction and adaptability to different terrains. This standardization ensured that Roman forces could establish strongholds quickly, consolidating their control over conquered regions.

Plan of a typical Roman fort. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0)

Logistics formed the backbone of the Roman military’s efficiency. Their supply chain management was unparalleled, with well-organized supply depots and transport systems that ensured armies remained well-provisioned even during prolonged campaigns. This logistical sophistication allowed the Romans to sustain their military operations across vast distances, from the British Isles to the Near East.

By combining discipline, rigorous training, and engineering prowess, Roman military tactics set a standard for operations that influenced subsequent civilizations and established a legacy of strategic and technological excellence.

Communication

Communication across the Roman Empire was facilitated by innovative postal systems and signal networks that revolutionized the way messages and information were exchanged.

The cursus publicus, a state-run courier and transportation network, exemplified the efficiency of Roman communication. This system allowed for the rapid exchange of messages and goods across vast distances. Relay stations, strategically placed along major routes and equipped with fresh horses, enabled couriers to travel great distances without delay. This infrastructure ensured the timely transmission of critical information, whether for administrative purposes or military operations.

Cursus publicus shown in the Tabula Peutingeriana. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0)

Signal networks complemented the postal system by enabling swift communication across regions. The Romans employed watchtowers and beacon systems to relay messages over long distances. These visual signals were essential for military coordination, allowing armies to respond quickly to threats or mobilize efficiently. The integration of these networks into the Roman administrative and military apparatus highlighted the empire’s commitment to maintaining order and connectivity across its territories.

Reconstruction of a Roman travel carriage (Roman-Germanic Museum, Cologne). Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0)

The Romans’ innovations in communication were instrumental in managing an empire of unprecedented scale, ensuring both its expansion and stability. By combining advanced postal systems with effective signal networks, they created a model of logistical efficiency that influenced subsequent civilizations.

Economics and trade

An extensive network of trade routes, standardized currency, and advanced financial systems underpinned the Roman economy, making it one of the most sophisticated in the ancient world. The Romans’ economic policies and trade networks facilitated the exchange of goods and ideas across vast distances, contributing to the empire’s prosperity and influence.

The number of dated of shipwrecks discovered provides evidence of the intensity of maritime commerce in the mediterranean sea across different historical periods. One should keep in mind that ships carrying cargoes with marble and ceramic vessels are more likely to be discovered than ships carrying more perishable cargoes. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 4.0)

Standardized currency and trade networks

The Romans revolutionized commerce through the introduction of a standardized currency, which facilitated trade across the vast empire. The denarius, sestertius, solidus, and other coin types became universally recognized, streamlining economic transactions and fostering trust in the marketplace. Roman trade networks extended from Britain to India, connecting diverse cultures and enabling the exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies. Their roads, ports, and maritime routes supported this expansive trade network, making the Roman economy one of the most integrated of the ancient world.

Principal Roman trade routes, internal and external in 180 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0)

Financial systems and taxation

Roman financial systems were remarkably advanced, with the establishment of banking, credit systems, and public treasuries. These mechanisms supported large-scale economic activities, from funding public works to financing military campaigns. Taxation was another cornerstone of Roman economic policy. Taxes collected from provinces were reinvested in infrastructure, administration, and defense, creating a cycle of economic growth and stability. The Romans also implemented tax farming, where individuals or corporations bid for the right to collect taxes, ensuring efficiency in revenue generation.

Ivory bankers’ tallies used to seal bags of denarii that were checked for weight and purity of silver. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 4.0)

Trade routes and traded goods

The Roman Empire’s trade routes were vital to its economic success. Overland routes, such as the Silk Road, connected Rome to China, while maritime routes facilitated trade across the Mediterranean and beyond. Traded goods included luxury items like silk, spices, and gemstones, as well as everyday commodities such as grain, olive oil, and wine. The Romans excelled in producing and exporting high-quality goods like pottery, glassware, and metalwork, which were highly sought after throughout the ancient world.

River vessel carrying barrels, assumed to be wine. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0)

Amphora like these, designed for marine transport, fascilitated the trade of wine and other goods. They served as standardized containers for liquids and dry goods, ensuring safe transport and storage. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0)

Examples of Roman civilizational achievements

In the past, and hopefully in the future, I have had the opportunity to explore various aspects of Roman civilization by visiting archaeological sites and museums. The following stories summarize some of these visits, offering insights into daily life, culture, and technological advancements in the Roman world:

• Roman legacy in Cologne
• Roman legacy in Cologne
• Roman legacy of glass art in Cologne
• Cologne’s pottery heritage
• Lares and the evolution of household deities in Europe
• Nida: A glimpse into Roman provincial life
• Mithras cult and Roman mystery religions
• Roamn amilet found in Nida changes history of early Christianity north of the Alps
• Discovering local history: A visit to the Niederbergisches Museum in Wülfrath

Legacy and influence

The Roman Empire’s scientific, technological, and economic achievements left a lasting impact on subsequent civilizations. Their legacy can be seen in the spread of knowledge, cultural exchange, and legal principles that continue to shape modern societies.

Spread of knowledge

Roman innovations and knowledge significantly influenced medieval Europe and the Islamic world. During the Middle Ages, many Roman texts and ideas were preserved and further developed by Islamic scholars, who translated key works into Arabic. These translations eventually re-entered Europe, igniting the Renaissance. Fields such as medicine, engineering, and law saw direct continuity of Roman methodologies, illustrating their enduring intellectual legacy.

Cultural exchange

The Roman Empire acted as a cultural intermediary, adapting technologies and practices from conquered peoples and spreading them across the empire. For instance, the Romans borrowed agricultural techniques, architectural styles, and scientific concepts from the Greeks, Egyptians, and other civilizations, refining and disseminating these ideas. This cross-cultural exchange fostered technological and intellectual advancements that benefited the broader Mediterranean and beyond.

Law and justice

Roman legal principles continue to influence modern legal systems. Concepts such as “innocent until proven guilty”, legal contracts, and codified laws originated in Roman jurisprudence. The Twelve Tables and the later Justinian Code established frameworks for property rights, civil law, and criminal procedures. These codifications became foundational texts, shaping European legal traditions and, by extension, those of the Americas and other regions.

Roman civilians examining the Twelve Tables after they were first implemented. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain)

Emergence of Christianity

The decline of Roman scientific and technological advancements coincided with the rise of Christianity as a dominant cultural and political force, but this relationship was not causal in the way it is often assumed. Rather, the decline and eventual fall of the (Western) Roman Empire created the conditions that allowed Christianity to rise to prominence.

As the Roman state faltered under political instability, economic crises, and prolonged military conflicts, traditional institutions weakened, leaving a vacuum that Christianity filled. The uncertainty and social disintegration of the late empire led people to seek solace in a faith that promised spiritual salvation and hope amid worldly decline. The spread of Christianity was facilitated by the infrastructure and communication systems that the empire had established, even as the empire itself fragmented.

The loss of centralized authority also contributed to the erosion of classical knowledge and priorities. With the disintegration of state-sponsored education and scientific inquiry, intellectual progress slowed, and resources were diverted to religious endeavors. Thus, Christianity’s dominance was a consequence of the empire’s decline, rather than its cause.

Reasons for the halt in developments

The reasons for the halt of further developments and even decline of knowledge in the emerging Middle Ages were caused by several factors:

• Shift in worldview
  Christianity’s emphasis on spiritual salvation over material or worldly achievements led to a devaluation of the scientific and empirical approaches championed by Roman culture. Curiosity, critical thinking, and questioning of established ideas — core tenets of Roman science — were often discouraged in favor of faith and adherence to doctrine.
• Suppression of pagan knowledge
  As Christianity gained political power, many classical texts and scientific works were deemed pagan and destroyed or neglected. Libraries, such as the famed Library of Alexandria, suffered catastrophic losses. This loss of knowledge created a significant intellectual vacuum.
• Resource reallocation
  Resources that had once supported public infrastructure, education, and scientific endeavors were redirected to the construction of churches, religious institutions, and the sustenance of a growing ecclesiastical hierarchy. This reallocation diminished state support for innovation and practical sciences.
• Rise of dogmatism
  The early Christian world often prioritized theological conformity over intellectual inquiry. Ideas that conflicted with Church doctrine, even those rooted in evidence, were suppressed, stalling progress in areas like astronomy, medicine, and engineering.

Loss of knowledge

The abandonment of Roman engineering, scientific principles, and educational systems resulted in widespread regression. Technological innovations like aqueducts, advanced concrete, and urban planning were no longer maintained or replicated. The intricate knowledge of Greek and Roman mathematics, astronomy, and medicine survived primarily through translations by Islamic scholars centuries later.

The loss of such knowledge delayed Europe’s recovery for nearly a millennium, until the Renaissance reintroduced Roman and Greek intellectual traditions. This reawakening, fueled by a renewed interest in classical values, ultimately paved the way for the scientific revolution.

Conclusion

The Roman Empire stands as a testament to human ingenuity and the transformative power of innovation. Its achievements in infrastructure, science, governance, and culture not only elevated the ancient world but also laid the foundational principles for modern advancements. From durable roads and aqueducts to sophisticated legal systems and educational institutions, the Romans demonstrated a commitment to progress that resonated through time.

However, the rise of Christianity marked a profound shift in values, deprioritizing the empirical and scientific ethos that had fueled Roman achievements. The suppression of classical knowledge and the reallocation of resources toward ecclesiastical ends contributed to a significant intellectual and technological decline. As a result, much of the Roman “spirit” of curiosity, empiricism, and progress was lost, leaving Europe in a state of “de-civilization” during the Dark Ages.

This Roman legacy, however, was not permanently extinguished. The preservation of classical texts by the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic world played a critical role in safeguarding Roman and Greek knowledge. Translations into Arabic and subsequent retranslations into Latin brought this wealth of information back to Western Europe during the Renaissance. Scholars such as Averroes and Avicenna in the Islamic world and Petrarch and Erasmus in Europe championed these rediscovered ideas, reigniting the values of reason, scientific inquiry, and innovation.

The Renaissance thus represents the rebirth of the Roman intellectual tradition, bridging the gap between antiquity and modernity. By reclaiming and building upon this ancient wisdom, humanity was able to embark on a new era of progress, ultimately leading to the Enlightenment and the scientific revolution.

In reflecting on the Roman legacy, it becomes clear that the values of curiosity, empiricism, and progress are not merely relics of the past but principles that continue to shape our world today. Their rediscovery underscores the importance of preserving and advancing knowledge, enabling the free exchange of ideas and fostering curiosity to ensure that future generations can build upon the achievements of those who came before.

Floor mosaic detail, Coat of arms of Rome, Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II, Milan. S.P.Q.R, the famous abbreviation for Senatus Populusque Romanus, the Senate and People of Rome, is part of the coat of arms. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 4.0)

References and further reading

• Richar Carrier, The Scientist in the Early Roman Empire, 2017, Pitchstone Publishing, ISBN: 978-1634311069
• Richard Carrier, Science Education In The Early Roman Empire, 2016, Pitchstone Publishing, ISBN: 9781634310901
• Richard Carrier, What Did the Romans Do For Us, YouTube, 2015, Part 1ꜛ and Part2 ꜛ
• Beard, Mary, SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome, 2016, Profile Books, ISBN: 978-1846683817
• Ward-Perkins, Bryan, The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization, 2005, Oxford University Press, ISBN: 978-0192805645
• Woolf, Greg, Rome: An Empire’s Story, 2022, Oxford University Press, ISBN: 978-0192895172
• Heather, Peter, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians, 2006, Pan Macmillan, ISBN: 978-0525566656
• Hopkins, Keith, Conquerors and Slaves, 2010, Cambridge University Press, ISBN: 978-0521281812
• Boatwright, Mary T., Gargola, Daniel J., and Talbert, Richard J. A., The Romans: From Village to Empire, 2004, Oxford University Press, ISBN: 978-0195118766
• Scheidel, Walter, The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century, 2017, Princeton University Press, ISBN: 978-0691165028
• Harris, William V., War and Imperialism in Republican Rome, 327–70 BC, 1985, Oxford University Press, ISBN: 978-0198148661