The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church

January 19, 2025 9 minute read see also comments

The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is one of the oldest Christian traditions in the world, with roots that trace back to the early centuries of Christianity. As the largest of the Oriental Orthodox Churches, it has played a pivotal role in the religious, cultural, and political life of Ethiopia. Its rich liturgical traditions, distinctive theological perspectives, and unique history reflect a deeply embedded Christian heritage shaped by both local and global influences. When I recently visited Frankfurt, I had the opportunity to explore an exhibition in the Icon Museum showcasing the artistic and spiritual treasures of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. I thought, therefore, it would be fitting to write about the history and significance of this ancient Christian tradition, also as an example of the vast diversity within early Christianity.

Betä Giyorgis (Church of St. George) from above, one of the rock-hewn churches of Lalibela. This remarkable Ethiopian Orthodoxy church, carved out of solid rock, is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site and is known for its unique architecture and spiritual significance. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0)

Historical development

Early Christianity in Ethiopia

Christianity was introduced to Ethiopia in the 4th century CE during the reign of King Ezana of the Kingdom of Aksum. According to historical accounts, Ezana converted to Christianity under the influence of two missionaries, Frumentius and Aedesius, who were shipwrecked and brought to Aksum. Frumentius, later ordained as the first bishop of Ethiopia by St. Athanasius of Alexandria, established the foundation of the Ethiopian Church.

The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church developed in close association with the Coptic Church of Alexandria, reflecting Ethiopia’s geographic and cultural proximity to Egypt. This relationship endured for centuries, with the Coptic Patriarch appointing Ethiopian bishops until the mid-20th century.

The Council of Chalcedon and Ethiopian orthodoxy

The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is part of the Oriental Orthodox communion, which rejected the Council of Chalcedon in 451 CE. This council defined Christ as having two natures, divine and human, in one person. The Oriental Orthodox Churches, including the Ethiopian Church, adhere to Miaphysitism, affirming the single united nature (Tewahedo in Ge’ez) of Christ that is both fully divine and fully human. This theological stance distinguishes the Ethiopian Church from Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism.

Autonomy and the modern era

In 1959, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church gained full autocephaly, with the appointment of its first Ethiopian Patriarch, Abuna Basilios. This marked a significant step in the Church’s independence from the Coptic Church. Today, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church remains a central institution in Ethiopian society, with millions of adherents and a vibrant monastic and liturgical tradition.

Theological foundations

The theology of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is deeply rooted in early Christian traditions and biblical interpretations, enriched by its own distinctive doctrinal and liturgical expressions.

Miaphysitism

The central theological doctrine of the Ethiopian Church is Miaphysitism, which asserts that Christ’s divine and human natures are united in one nature without confusion, change, division, or separation. This belief underscores the Church’s rejection of Chalcedonian Christology and its alignment with other Oriental Orthodox Churches.

Sacred texts and canon

The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church has one of the most extensive biblical canons in Christianity, including books not found in most other Christian traditions. In addition to the canonical texts recognized by most Christian denominations, the Ethiopian Bible includes books such as [1 Enoch](/weekend_stories/told/2025/2025-01-11-enochs_influence_on_jesus_narrative/, Jubilees, and 4 Baruch. The Church regards these texts as divinely inspired and integral to its theological worldview.

Emphasis on tradition

The Church places significant emphasis on tradition as a source of authority alongside scripture. Its liturgical practices, hymns, and ecclesiastical art reflect centuries of spiritual and cultural continuity, blending biblical themes with Ethiopian cultural motifs.

An Ethiopian Orthodox ceremony at Fasilides’ Bath in Gondar, Ethiopia, celebrating Timkat (Epiphany). Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0)

Liturgical practices and monasticism

The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is renowned for its elaborate and deeply spiritual liturgical practices, which are central to the life of its faithful.

The Ge’ez liturgy

The Church’s liturgy is conducted in Ge’ez, an ancient Semitic language that serves as the liturgical language of Ethiopian Orthodoxy. The Divine Liturgy is a richly symbolic celebration that includes prayers, hymns, and rituals, often accompanied by the rhythmic use of drums and sistra (traditional percussion instruments).

Priests and deacons conducting a church liturgy service at Debre Meheret Kedus Michael Ethiopian Orthodox Cathedral, Washington, DC, USA. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0)

Fasting and sacraments

Fasting is a significant aspect of Ethiopian Orthodox practice, with adherents observing numerous fasting periods throughout the year, including the Lenten fast and the weekly Wednesday and Friday fasts. The sacraments, particularly the Eucharist, play a central role in the spiritual life of the Church.

Monastic tradition

Monasticism is a cornerstone of the Ethiopian Orthodox tradition. Monasteries, such as those on Lake Tana and in Lalibela, have been centers of spiritual devotion, education, and manuscript preservation for centuries. Monastic communities uphold ascetic practices and serve as custodians of the Church’s theological and cultural heritage.

The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church has profoundly shaped Ethiopian identity and culture, influencing art, music, architecture, and social norms.

Another view of the rock-hewn Church of Saint George. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 2.0)

Ecclesiastical art and architecture

The Church’s artistic heritage includes iconic illuminated manuscripts, intricate crosses, and sacred icons. The rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, exemplify the Church’s architectural ingenuity and spiritual symbolism.

Inside Debre Sema’it village rock church. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 4.0)

Festivals and community life

Religious festivals, such as Timket (Epiphany) and Meskel (the Finding of the True Cross), are major cultural events that draw large crowds and reinforce communal bonds. These celebrations blend liturgical solemnity with vibrant public participation, reflecting the integration of faith and daily life.

An Ethiopian Orthodox priest displays the processional crosses. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 2.0)

Historically, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church has been a powerful social and political institution, closely associated with Ethiopian monarchy and governance. Even in modern times, it remains a moral authority and a source of resilience and unity for its followers.

Ethiopian collection: overview map of the origin of the exhibited objects.

Artistic and spiritual treasures of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church

During my visit to the Icon Museum in Frankfurt, I had the opportunity to witness an exceptional collection of Ethiopian Orthodox artifacts. These artistic and spiritual treasures provide a tangible connection to the Church’s rich heritage, offering insight into its theological and cultural identity.

The exhibition showcased a wide range of religious objects, including illuminated manuscripts, crosses, and intricately painted icons. These artifacts reflect the Church’s distinctive artistic style, characterized by vibrant colors, intricate patterns, and symbolic imagery. The following images capture some of the highlights of the exhibition, offering a glimpse into the beauty and spiritual significance of Ethiopian Orthodox art.

Icon Pendant (Double Diptych), Side A: Mary with Child and St. George, Side B: Crucifixion of Christ and Saints Täklä Haymanot and Gäbrä Mänfäs Oaddus, around 1650.

Icon Pendant (Double Diptych), Side A: Mary with Child and St. George Side B: Crucifixion of Christ and Anastasis, early 17th century.

Presentation of the Virgin Mary at the Temple, Central panel of a small triptych, 16th century.

Left Side Panel of a Trinity icon displaying different scenes, 15th/16th century, Annunciation, Baptism and Presentation of Jesus at the Temple; Crucifixion, Entombment and Equestrian Saint.

Left Side Panel of a Trinity icon displaying different scenes, 15th/16th century, Annunciation, Baptism and Presentation of Jesus at the Temple; Crucifixion, Entombment and Equestrian Saint

Three Neck Crosses in Gondarine Form, 17th / 18th century.

Three Neck Crosses in Star of David Shape, 20th century.

Triptych, Central panel: Mother of God with Child, Left panel: Crucifixion, Saint George Right panel: Anastasis, Equestrian Saint, 17th century.

Icon Pendant (Double Diptych), Side A: Mary with Child and St. George, Side B: Crucifixion of Christ and Saints Gäbrä Mänfäs Qaddus and Täklä Haymanot, ca. 1650.

Two Side Panels of a Triptych, Left: Anastasis, Covenant of Mercy, St. George Right: Crucifixion, Presentation of Jesus at the Temple, Equestrian Saint, 17th century

Triptych, Central panel: Mother of God with Child Left panel: Anastasis and Saints, Saint George Right panel: Crucifixion and Saints, 17th century.

Parts of a Triptych, Central panel: Mother of God with Child and Saints Left panel: Anastasis, Covenant of Mercy and Saint George, 17th century

Marian Anaphora of Cyriacus, 18th century, Wooden cover, parchment, 74 folios, Old Ethiopic (Ga’az)

Triptych with Side Panels of Different Widths, Central panel: Mary with her beloved son and Saints; Left panel: Saints Täklä Haymanot and Gäbrä Mänfäs Qaddus, the Washing of the Feet and Saints, Right panel: Anastasis, Crucifixion, Saints, 17th c.

Icon Pendant (Double Diptych), Side A: main pane: Mary win Chid, Cover panel: St. George; Side B: main panel: Cruzifixion, Cover panel: Anastasis, 17th century

Sälam to Raguel, Sälam to George of Lydda, 19th/20th century, Parchment bound in wooden covers, 69 folios, Old Ethiopic (Ge’az).

Two Side Panels of a Triptych, Left panel: St. George and St. Täkla Haymanot, Right panel: Archangel Gabriel and St Gäbrä Mänfäs Qaddus, approx. 18th century

Triptych, Central panel: Mother of God with Child and Trinity, Left panel: Saints George, Täklä Haymanot and Gäbrä Mänfäs Qaddus, Right panel: Ascension and Crucifixion, 1st third 18th century.

Vita of St. Abunä Gäbrä Mänfäs Qaddus the Blessed, Wooden covers with embossed leather, inside of the covers wrapped in brocade, parchment, 115 folios, full-page image of the saint, ornamental borders (haräg),Old Ethiopic (Ge’az), Late 18th century

Hand Cross, Leather, 20th century.

Oil Lamp, Copper, 17th century.

Neck Cross in Circle Form, 20h century.

Fanfold Booklet (Leporello) with Magical Prayers and Recipes, Produced between 1930 and 1950, Parchment, 100 pages, Old Ethiopic (Ge’az), (pp. 1-50 - recto; pp. 51-100 = verso).

Hand Cross with Human Figure in Stem, Wood, 19th/20th century.

Processional Crosses, Copper, 14th/15th century.

Circular Letter sent by the Ethiopian Metropolitan Krestodolu III., 18th century, Wooden covers, parchment, 87 folios, text on both sides of the page in red and black ink, Old Ethiopic (Ga’az), with leather bag.

Three Hand Crosses, Brass (left) and Wood (remaining), 19th/20th century.

Conclusion

The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church stands as one of the most enduring and distinctive Christian traditions in the world. Rooted in the early history of Christianity and shaped by Ethiopia’s unique cultural and political context, it has developed a rich theological and liturgical identity. Its unwavering commitment to tradition, sacred texts, and spiritual practices has enabled it to sustain a vibrant faith community for nearly two millennia. Despite the challenges of modernization and shifting social landscapes, the Church remains a pillar of Ethiopian identity and an essential institution in Ethiopia’s historical and cultural landscape. Its theological heritage, artistic contributions, and enduring liturgical traditions illustrate its deep-rooted significance within both the Ethiopian identity and the broader Christian world.

Ethiopian Orthodox priests dancing during 2015 Timkat celebration. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 2.0)

References and further reading

Chaillot, C., The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church tradition: a brief introduction to its life and spirituality, 2002, Inter-Orthodox Press, ISBN: 978-8385368984
Kaplan, S., The Beta Israel: Falasha in Ethiopia, 1995, New York University Press, ISBN: 978-0814746646
Isaac, E., The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church: an integrally African Church, 1997, J.C. Winston Publishing Company, ISBN: 9781555237394
Parry, K. (Ed.), The Blackwell companion to Eastern Christianity, 19201099, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN: 978-1444333619
Ewa Balicka-Witakowska, Karl Christian Felmy, Michael Gervers, Wolfgang Hahn, Annegret Marx, Denis Nosnitsin, Walter Raunig, Merawi Tebege, Jörg Weinerth, Arise and go toward the south – 2000 years of Christianity in Ethiopia, 2007, TC Druck, ISBN: 9783932942280