Homosexuality in Christian history: Persecution and moral condemnation
Throughout history, the Christian Church has played a significant role in shaping societal attitudes toward sexuality, including homosexuality. The Church’s stance on homosexuality has evolved over time, influenced by theological interpretations, cultural contexts, and legal frameworks. This article explores the historical relationship between the Church and homosexuality, examining key events, doctrines, and societal impacts from early Christianity to the modern era.
Ancient pre-Christian views on homosexuality
Mesopotamian and Egyptian perspectives
The earliest recorded views on homosexuality come from ancient Mesopotamian civilizations, where attitudes toward same-sex relations were complex and varied. Texts from Sumer, Akkad, and Babylon do not uniformly condemn homosexual behavior; instead, they depict it in a range of contexts, from ritual practices to personal relationships. Evidence from Akkadian literature, such as the Epic of Gilgamesh, hints at deep bonds between male characters, though scholars debate whether these relationships had a sexual dimension. The Code of Hammurabi (c. 1754 BCE), while comprehensive in its legal scope, does not mention homosexuality explicitly, suggesting a degree of tolerance or indifference.
In ancient Egypt, there are depictions and texts suggesting same-sex relationships, with the most famous being the story of Pharaoh Neferkare (likely Pepi II) and his general Sasenet. This tale, recorded in later periods, reflects a narrative in which the pharaoh visits Sasenet at night, hinting at a possible intimate relationship. While the historical accuracy of this account is uncertain, it demonstrates that discussions of same-sex relations existed in ancient Egyptian culture.
In addition to these examples, ritualized same-sex behavior in Mesopotamian temple contexts has been documented, particularly involving priests and priestesses dedicated to specific deities, such as Inanna/Ishtar. These practices indicate that homosexuality, while not universally accepted, had religious and cultural roles in some ancient societies.
Greco-Roman views on homosexuality
In ancient Greece, homosexual relationships, particularly pederasty—a socially acknowledged relationship between an adult male and a younger male—played a significant role in cultural and educational life. Philosophers such as Plato discussed same-sex love in works like The Symposium, where it was often idealized as a form of higher love. However, attitudes were not uniformly positive; certain Greek states, such as Sparta, imposed restrictions on homosexual behavior.
The Roman Empire’s pragmatic approach to sexuality meant that sexual acts, including same-sex relations, were generally judged not by gender but by social hierarchy and power dynamics. Practically, this meant that while male citizens were expected to engage in dominant roles during sexual encounters, the gender of their partners was less scrutinized than the nature of the act itself. Sexual relations with slaves or lower-class individuals were often accepted, as these partners held an inferior social status. However, as Stoic philosophy gained influence, promoting self-control and moral discipline, laws began to reflect a more restrictive attitude toward all forms of non-procreative sex, ultimately leading to prohibitions under later emperors. This shift marked the beginning of legal persecution for behaviors once tolerated or overlooked.
Early Christian views on sexuality and homosexuality
In the early Christian period, attitudes toward sexuality were deeply influenced by Jewish moral codes, which were rooted in the religious and legal traditions of ancient Israel. The Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) contains several passages that condemn homosexual acts, most notably in Leviticus 18:22 and 20:13, which describe male same-sex relations as an “abomination.” These prohibitions were part of broader purity laws aimed at distinguishing Israelite identity from surrounding cultures. Beyond explicit condemnation, Jewish texts emphasized procreative sex within marriage as a religious duty, further shaping the early Christian emphasis on heterosexual unions.
The role of Paul and early Church fathers
The self-proclaimed “apostle” Paul is often cited as a key figure in the development of Christian attitudes toward homosexuality. In several of his letters, such as Romans 1:26-27 and 1 Corinthians 6:9-10, Paul condemns same-sex relations, framing them as contrary to natural law and divine will. Paul’s influence on early Christian theology was profound, and his writings laid the groundwork for subsequent Church doctrine.
Early Church fathers such as Augustine of Hippo and John Chrysostom expanded on Paul’s teachings. Augustine viewed all non-procreative sexual acts as sinful, emphasizing the importance of chastity and marriage. John Chrysostom, in his homilies, harshly criticized homosexual behavior, portraying it as unnatural and morally corrupt.
Legalization of Christianity and early edicts against homosexuality
The legalization of Christianity under Emperor Constantine in the early 4th century marked a turning point in the Church’s influence over societal laws. By the time of Emperor Theodosius I, who declared Christianity the official state religion of the Roman Empire in 380 CE, Christian moral teachings began to shape Roman law.
In 390 CE, Theodosius issued an edict prescribing severe punishment for male homosexual acts, reflecting the growing alignment between Christian doctrine and imperial legislation. This trend continued under Justinian I, whose 6th-century legal reforms explicitly criminalized homosexual behavior. Justinian’s laws not only prescribed harsh penalties, including execution, but also linked homosexuality to divine punishment, blaming it for natural disasters.
Medieval Church doctrine and the inquisition
During the medieval period, the Church’s stance on homosexuality became more institutionalized. Canon law, which governed ecclesiastical matters, increasingly reflected the view that homosexual acts were gravely sinful. This period saw the development of the concept of “sodomy,” a broad term used to describe various forms of non-procreative sexual behavior, including homosexual acts.
The Third Lateran Council in 1179 explicitly condemned sodomy, prescribing excommunication for laypeople and defrocking for clergy found guilty of such acts. This condemnation was reiterated by subsequent councils and papal decrees, reinforcing the Church’s opposition to homosexuality.
The establishment of the inquisition in the 13th century further institutionalized the persecution of homosexuals. While the primary focus of the inquisition was heresy, accusations of sodomy were often linked to charges of heretical behavior. Those accused faced imprisonment, torture, and execution, with homosexual acts being treated as both a moral and a religious offense.
The reformation and counter-reformation
The Protestant Reformation of the 16th century brought significant changes to the religious landscape of Europe, but it did not fundamentally alter attitudes toward homosexuality. Reformers such as Martin Luther and John Calvin upheld traditional Christian views on sexual morality, condemning homosexual acts as sinful.
The Catholic Counter-Reformation, which sought to reaffirm Catholic doctrine in response to Protestant critiques, maintained a strict stance on sexuality. The Council of Trent (1545–1663) emphasized the sanctity of marriage and condemned sexual behavior outside of marital procreation. This period saw continued persecution of homosexuals, with both Protestant and Catholic authorities enforcing harsh penalties.
Enlightenment and early modern changes
The Enlightenment of the 17th and 18th centuries brought new philosophical ideas that began to challenge traditional religious views on sexuality. Thinkers such as Voltaire and Montesquieu criticized the Church’s harsh stance on sexual behavior, advocating for greater tolerance and individual rights.
Despite these intellectual shifts, legal persecution of homosexuals continued in many parts of Europe, often justified by religious doctrine. It was not until the late 18th and early 19th centuries that some countries began to decriminalize homosexual acts, influenced by Enlightenment ideas and growing secularization.
Modern developments and the Church’s evolving stance
In the 20th century, attitudes toward homosexuality began to change more rapidly, externally driven by broader social and cultural shifts. The sexual revolution of the 1960s and the gay rights movement challenged traditional norms and called for greater acceptance of LGBTQ+ individuals.
The Catholic Church, while maintaining its doctrinal stance that homosexual acts are sinful, began to adopt a more pastoral approach. In 1986, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, under Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI), issued a letter titled On the Pastoral Care of Homosexual Persons, which called for compassion and respect toward homosexual individuals while reaffirming the Church’s opposition to same-sex relations.
Pope Francis has further shifted the tone of the Church’s discourse on homosexuality. While he has upheld traditional doctrine, his statements emphasizing mercy, compassion, and non-judgment have been seen as a significant departure from the more rigid approaches of his predecessors.
Homosexuality in other major world religions
The treatment of homosexuality in other major world religions offers a broader perspective on how religious traditions have influenced societal attitudes toward same-sex relationships. While each religion approaches the subject from its unique theological and cultural framework, many share parallels with Christianity in their evolving stances on homosexuality.
Judaism
Judaism, as the religious foundation for Christianity, has historically condemned homosexual acts. The Hebrew Bible explicitly forbids male same-sex relations in passages like Leviticus 18:22 (“You shall not lie with a male as with a woman; it is an abomination”) and Leviticus 20:13, which prescribes the death penalty for such acts. These prohibitions are part of broader purity laws intended to set the Israelites apart from surrounding cultures.
Rabbinic Judaism, which developed after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, upheld these prohibitions but placed less emphasis on the death penalty, reflecting the changing context of Jewish life in the diaspora. Modern Jewish denominations vary widely in their approaches to homosexuality. While Orthodox Judaism generally maintains traditional prohibitions, Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist movements have embraced more inclusive stances, ordaining LGBTQ+ clergy and sanctifying same-sex marriages.
Islam
Islam’s views on homosexuality are deeply influenced by the Quran and Hadith (sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad). The Quran mentions the story of the people of Lot (Lut in Arabic) in several passages, condemning their sexual behavior and linking it to divine punishment (e.g., Quran 7:80-84 and 26:165-166). While these texts are interpreted as condemning homosexual acts, they do not prescribe specific earthly punishments.
Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), however, developed more explicit penalties, ranging from flogging to execution, depending on the school of thought and the historical context. Despite these prohibitions, same-sex relationships were not always strictly policed in Muslim societies. Medieval Islamic literature, such as poetry and Sufi mysticism, often explored themes of homoerotic love, reflecting a more nuanced reality.
In the modern era, attitudes toward homosexuality in the Muslim world vary widely. While many countries with majority Muslim populations criminalize homosexual acts, there are growing voices within Islamic reform movements advocating for LGBTQ+ inclusion and reinterpretation of traditional texts.
Hinduism
Hinduism’s approach to homosexuality is less doctrinally rigid, reflecting the religion’s diverse and decentralized nature. Ancient Hindu texts, such as the Kama Sutra, mention same-sex relationships without explicit condemnation. Hindu mythology includes stories of gender fluidity and same-sex love, such as the tale of Shikhandi, a transgender warrior in the Mahabharata, and depictions of deities like Shiva and Vishnu in blended forms (e.g., Ardhanarishvara, a composite of male and female).
However, colonial influences, particularly Victorian morality, introduced stricter attitudes toward homosexuality in South Asia. Many contemporary Hindu leaders and organizations are reexamining these colonial legacies and advocating for greater acceptance of LGBTQ+ individuals. The decriminalization of homosexuality in India in 2018 marked a significant step toward inclusivity in Hindu-majority societies.
Buddhism
Buddhism’s views on homosexuality vary across its different traditions. The Buddha’s teachings focus on reducing suffering and cultivating ethical conduct, but they do not explicitly address homosexuality. The Vinaya (monastic code) prohibits sexual activity for monks and nuns, regardless of orientation, emphasizing celibacy as a path to enlightenment.
In many Buddhist-majority cultures, societal attitudes toward homosexuality have been shaped more by local traditions than by Buddhist doctrine. For example, in Thailand, a predominantly Buddhist country, LGBTQ+ individuals often find acceptance, though legal and social equality remains a work in progress. Progressive interpretations of Buddhist teachings emphasize compassion and non-judgment, providing a framework for greater inclusivity.
Japan: Nanshoku in historical context
In Japan, same-sex relationships have a rich historical and cultural context, often referred to as nanshoku (“male colors”). Nanshoku was prominently associated with the samurai class and Buddhist monastic communities during the medieval and early modern periods. These relationships were often structured between an older mentor and a younger disciple or apprentice, reflecting societal norms of hierarchy and education.
In the samurai class, nanshoku relationships were viewed as bonds of loyalty, mentorship, and affection, frequently idealized in literature and art. Similarly, in Buddhist monasteries, such relationships were often considered a natural extension of close spiritual companionship. While these practices were generally accepted within their cultural framework, they were also regulated by social norms and expectations.
The Edo period (1603–1868) saw the flourishing of nanshoku in popular culture, including kabuki theater, where male actors often played female roles and sometimes engaged in same-sex relationships. Woodblock prints (ukiyo-e) and literary works from this period frequently depicted nanshoku, celebrating it as an integral part of Japanese society.
With the Meiji Restoration in the late 19th century and the subsequent modernization and Westernization of Japan, attitudes toward same-sex relationships shifted. Influenced by Victorian morality and Western legal codes, nanshoku practices were stigmatized and suppressed. However, in contemporary Japan, there has been a resurgence of interest in nanshoku as part of the nation’s cultural heritage, alongside ongoing debates about LGBTQ+ rights and acceptance.
Historical overview of Christian attitudes toward homosexuality
The following lists summarized important events and doctrines shaping Christian sexual morality:
- 314 CE – Council of Ancyra
This early council issued one of the first known Church canons condemning homosexual acts, equating them with other sexual sins and prescribing penance for those who engaged in them. - 390 CE – Edict of Theodosius I
Theodosius I, who declared Nicene Christianity the state religion of the Roman Empire, issued a law prescribing death by burning for male homosexual acts. This law reflected a harsh shift in legal treatment of homosexuality under Christian influence. - 529 CE – Code of Justinian
Emperor Justinian I’s legal reforms explicitly criminalized homosexual acts, defining them as contrary to divine law and nature. The code prescribed severe punishments, including execution, and linked homosexual behavior to natural disasters and divine retribution. - Lateran Council III (1179 CE)
This ecumenical council officially condemned sodomy (a term broadly used to describe non-procreative sexual acts) as a grave sin. Clerics found guilty of homosexual acts were to be defrocked, and laypeople were to be excommunicated. - 1232 CE – Establishment of the Inquisition
While the primary focus of the Inquisition was heresy, it also extended to moral offenses, including sodomy. Accusations of homosexual behavior could lead to trials, imprisonment, and execution by burning. *. 1533 CE – Buggery Act (England)
Under King Henry VIII, England passed the Buggery Act, making homosexual acts punishable by death. This law reflected the influence of Christian moral doctrine on secular governance. - 1563 CE – Council of Trent
The council reaffirmed the Church’s teachings on sexual morality, emphasizing marriage as a sacrament and condemning all forms of non-marital sexual activity, including homosexuality. *. 1777 CE – Joseph II of Austria’s penal code reform
While not directly from the Church, this reform is notable because it abolished the death penalty for homosexual acts, replacing it with severe imprisonment. The earlier laws in Austria had been influenced by Church doctrine on sexual morality. - 1933–1945 CE – Persecution of homosexuals under the Nazi regime
Thousands of homosexuals were persecuted, imprisoned, and executed under the Nazi regime. This systematic oppression can be seen as a consequence of centuries-long condemnation of homosexuality by the Church, which had deeply influenced societal norms and laws in Europe. - 1961 CE – The Catholic Church’s declaration on sexual ethics
This Vatican document reaffirmed traditional Christian views on sexual morality, condemning homosexual acts as intrinsically disordered while distinguishing between homosexual orientation and behavior.
Conclusion
The historical relationship between the Christian Church and homosexuality is complex and multifaceted. The Church has played a central role in shaping societal attitudes toward homosexuality, often contributing to its persecution. Church teachings doctrines on sexual morality have shaped legal frameworks, societal norms, and individual lives, with profound consequences for LGBTQ+ individuals, which lasted for centuries and still resonate today. It is not plausible, how an institution claiming to represent the teachings of Jesus, who emphasized love, compassion, and inclusion, could have contributed to the marginalization and persecution of LGBTQ+ individuals. Excuses like “contextual interpretation” or “historical circumstances” cannot fully justify the harm caused by centuries of moral condemnation and legal persecution. The Church’s attitude toward homosexuality is not a short or solitary chapter in its history but a continuous thread that has woven through centuries of Christian thought and practice. I think, it is highly questionable, whether the Church can truly reconcile its past actions with its professed values of love, mercy, and justice.
References and further reading
- Karlheinz Deschner, Das Kreuz mit der Kirche. Eine Sexualgeschichte des Christentums, 1974, Econ, Düsseldorf 1974; überarbeitete Neuausgabe 1992; Sonderausgabe 2009, ISBN 978-3-9811483-9-8
- Boswell, Christianity, social tolerance, and homosexuality, 2015, University of Chicago Press, ISBN: 978-0226345222
- Brundage, Law, sex, and Christian society in medieval Europe, 1990, University of Chicago Press, ISBN: 978-0226077840
- Jordan, The invention of sodomy in Christian theology, 1997, University of Chicago Press, ISBN: 978-0226410401
- Scroggs, The New Testament and homosexuality: Contextual background for contemporary debate, 1983, Fortress Press, ISBN: 978-0800618544
- Craig A Williams, Roman homosexuality: ideologies of masculinity in classical antiquity, 1999, Oxford University Press, ISBN: 9780195125054
- Michael Rocke, Forbidden Friendships - Homosexuality And Male Culture In Renaissance Florence, 1996, Oxford University Press on Demand, ISBN: 9780195122923
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