Contra Celsum: Origen’s response and the irony of survival

The work Contra Celsum (Against Celsus) by Origen of Alexandria is a landmark in early Christian apologetics. Written in the late 2nd or early 3rd century CE, it serves as a detailed rebuttal to the criticisms of Christianity put forward by Celsus, a 2nd-century Greek philosopher. While Origen’s aim was to defend the faith and refute Celsus’ arguments, the ironic legacy of Contra Celsum is that it preserved, almost in its entirety, the very criticisms it sought to dismantle. Celsus’ original work, The True Doctrine (Ἀληθὴς Λόγος), has been lost to history, and modern scholars rely almost entirely on Origen’s quotations to reconstruct its content. In this post, we examine Contra Celsum in its historical context, explore Origen’s counterarguments to Celsus’ criticisms, and reflect on the unintended consequences of Origen’s efforts. This irony reveals much about the early development of Christian thought, the nature of religious polemics, and the preservation of intellectual discourse in antiquity.

A piece of the oldest textual tradition of Origen’s writing Contra Celsum on papyrus, Cairo, Egyptian Museum, late 6th or early 7th century. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain)

Celsus and his critique of Christianity

Celsus, a 2nd-century Platonist philosopher, authored The True Doctrine as a scathing critique of Christianity, which he viewed as a dangerous and irrational cult. Writing during a time when Christianity was gaining converts but still marginalized within the Roman Empire, Celsus sought to expose what he perceived as the religion’s flaws, both theological and social.

Key criticisms in The True Doctrine

• Intellectual incoherence
  Celsus accused Christianity of being an illogical faith, inconsistent with reason and philosophical rigor. He criticized its reliance on miracles, which he dismissed as superstitious, and its rejection of rational philosophy.
• Exclusivity and division
  Celsus denounced Christianity for its exclusivity, arguing that its claim to possess the “only truth” divided communities and undermined social cohesion. He accused Christians of arrogance in rejecting traditional polytheistic religions and philosophies.
• Social subversion
  Celsus viewed Christianity as a threat to Roman society, accusing it of attracting the uneducated, poor, and marginalized. He mocked the Christian movement as a gathering of “sinners, women, and children”.
• Jesus’ divinity
  Celsus rejected the idea of Jesus as divine, questioning the plausibility of the virgin birth and resurrection. He portrayed Jesus as a mere human, possibly a magician, who misled his followers with dubious claims of divinity.
• Theological contradictions
  Celsus highlighted inconsistencies in Christian theology, particularly regarding the nature of God and the problem of evil. He contrasted the Christian God with the philosophical concept of a rational, immutable divine principle.

Origen’s Contra Celsum: The first comprehensive Christian apology

Origen, one of early Christianity’s most sophisticated thinkers, undertook the monumental task of responding to Celsus’ The True Doctrine. Commissioned by his patron, Ambrose, Contra Celsum systematically addresses and refutes Celsus’ arguments, offering a robust defense of Christian theology and practice.

Origen’s defense of Christianity

• Faith and reason
  Origen argued that Christianity was not opposed to reason but complemented it. He presented Christian faith as a fulfillment of philosophical inquiry, revealing truths beyond the reach of human reason. Origen sought to integrate Christianity with Greek philosophy, particularly Platonism, to demonstrate its intellectual credibility.
• The universality of Christianity
  In response to Celsus’ criticism of exclusivity, Origen emphasized Christianity’s universal message. He argued that Christianity’s appeal to the poor and marginalized was a strength, demonstrating its accessibility and transformative power for all, regardless of social status.
• Defense of Jesus’ divinity
  Origen provided detailed theological arguments to support Jesus’ divinity, addressing Celsus’ objections to the virgin birth and resurrection. He presented Jesus as the logos (Word), aligning the Christian concept of the divine with the Platonic idea of a rational, ordering principle.
• Ethical superiority
  Origen defended Christian ethics as superior to pagan morality, highlighting the virtues of love, forgiveness, and humility. He countered Celsus’ accusations of subversion by portraying Christianity as a force for societal improvement.
• Critique of paganism Origen turned the tables on Celsus by criticizing pagan religions for their inconsistencies and immoral practices. He dismissed polytheism as incoherent and contrasted it with the unity and rationality of Christian monotheism.

The historical irony of Contra Celsum: Preserving Celsus’ criticism

Although Contra Celsum was intended as a refutation of The True Doctrine, it inadvertently ensured the survival of Celsus’ arguments. Origen quoted extensively from Celsus, often reproducing entire passages before providing his rebuttal. As a result, Contra Celsum is now the primary source for understanding Celsus’ critique of Christianity.

Without Origen’s response, Celsus’ The True Doctrine might have been entirely lost to history. Ironically, a Christian apologist became the custodian of one of the earliest pagan critiques of Christianity. This preservation of dissenting voices underscores the complex interplay between orthodoxy and criticism in religious history. Origen’s extensive quotations of Celsus’ work actually ensured that future generations would have access to these early critiques, providing a richer understanding of the intellectual landscape of the time.

Furthermore, Contra Celsum illustrates the dynamic exchange of ideas in antiquity, where opposing viewpoints were not merely dismissed but engaged with rigorously. This tradition of intellectual debate highlights the vibrancy of early Christian and pagan philosophical discourse.

Conclusion

Contra Celsum documents the intellectual engagement of early Christian thinkers like Origen and their willingness to confront challenges to their faith with rigor and sophistication. Origen’s methodical response to Celsus’ criticisms demonstrates the complexity of early Christian apologetics, which aimed to reconcile faith with reason, defend against external critiques, and engage in philosophical dialogue with the broader intellectual currents of the time. This willingness to engage critically, rather than suppress dissenting voices, reflects an intellectual openness that would later diminish under the dominance of ecclesiastical orthodoxy.

Yet, Contra Celsum carries an enduring and ironic legacy: in seeking to dismantle Celsus’ arguments, Origen preserved them for posterity. Without his exhaustive quotations, the criticisms of one of Christianity’s earliest philosophical opponents might have been lost to history. In this sense, Contra Celsum exemplifies an unintended Streisand effect avant la lettre, where an attempt to refute criticism ensures its broader survival.

References and further reading

• Origen, Contra Celsum, 2008, Cambridge University Press, translated by H. Chadwick, ISBN: 978-0521295765
• McGuckin, J.A., Origen of Alexandria: Master Theologian of the Early Church, 2024, Globe Pequot Publishing Group Inc/Bloomsbury, ISBN: 978-1978708457
• Trigg, J.W., Origen: The Bible and philosophy in the third-century church, 2012, SCM Press, ISBN: 978-0334022343
• Crouzel, H., Origen, 1999, T&T Clark, ISBN: 978-0567086396
• Heine, R.E., Origen: Scholarship in the service of the church, 2011, Oxford University Press, ISBN: 978-0199209088
• Kannengiesser, C., Handbook of Patristic Exegesis: The Bible in Ancient Christianity, 2006, Brill, ISBN: 978-9004153615
• Martens, P.W., Origen and Scripture: The contours of the exegetical life, 2012, Oxford University Press, ISBN: 978-0199639557
• Grant, R.M., Greek Apologists of the Second Century, 2012, SCM Press, ISBN: 978-0334005353
• Diarmaid MacCulloch, Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years, 2010, Book, Penguin, ISBN: 9781101189993
• Chadwick, H., The early church, 1993, Penguin Books, ISBN: 978-0140231991