Zalmoxis: The Thracian cult that may have influenced the conception of Jesus

Zalmoxis is a figure deeply rooted in the spiritual traditions of the ancient Thracians, specifically the Getae, a tribe inhabiting regions corresponding to modern-day Romania and Bulgaria. His narrative, as recorded by ancient Greek sources such as Herodotus, portrays him as a teacher, prophet, or even a god who profoundly influenced the religious and philosophical outlook of the Getae. Beyond his historical and mythological significance, Zalmoxis has become a focal point in modern discussions about the origins and development of mystery cults in antiquity. In this post, we explore Zalmoxis’s role in Thracian religion, his connections to Greek mystery traditions, and Richard Carrier’s interpretation of his cult’s significance as a precursor to Christianity.

A Thracian tomb painting at the Aleksandrovska Grobnitsa (Bulgaria), which possibly depicts Zalmoxis, painted circa 4th century BCE. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain)

Historical and mythical context

Zalmoxis is associated with the Getae, a Thracian tribe in the region corresponding to modern-day Romania and Bulgaria. Emerging around the 6th century BCE, the cult of Zalmoxis became a defining aspect of Getic religious life and reflected broader Indo-European traditions. He is considered a central figure in their spiritual practices, blending local and external influences.

Depending on the source, Zalmoxis is described as a god, a deified human, or a cultural hero. In some interpretations, he is seen as a reformer or wise sage who introduced religious and moral teachings. His narrative exemplifies the dynamic interplay between myth and historical memory in ancient societies, illustrating how spiritual leaders could become mythologized over time.

Herodotus account

Herodotus, in his Histories (Book IV), provides the earliest known account of Zalmoxis, blending myth and historical reporting. He describes Zalmoxis as a former slave of the Greek philosopher Pythagoras, who, after gaining freedom and wealth, returned to his homeland among the Getae. There, he introduced teachings about the immortality of the soul, asserting that death was merely a passage to a place of eternal happiness. To reinforce his claims, Zalmoxis built an underground chamber, where he lived in seclusion for three years, leading his followers to believe he had transcended mortality. Upon reappearing in the fourth year, they accepted his teachings as divine truth.

Herodotus also recounts a dramatic ritual of the Getae: every four years, they would choose a messenger to send to Zalmoxis. The chosen individual was thrown into the air onto three spears held by other men. If the messenger died from the impalement, it was taken as a sign of Zalmoxis’s favor. If the messenger survived, he was deemed unworthy, and another was chosen. This act symbolized their belief in Zalmoxis’s role as an intermediary with the divine, reinforcing their faith in his promise of immortality.

Interestingly, Herodotus mentions that some Thracians equated Zalmoxis with another deity, Gebeleizis, and describes a practice in which they shot arrows at the sky during storms, challenging celestial powers and asserting their belief in Zalmoxis as their supreme god. While skeptical about certain aspects of the story, Herodotus acknowledges Zalmoxis as an integral part of Getic culture and religious life.

Zalmoxis’s dual identity—as a man who might have lived before Pythagoras and as a deity—creates interpretive challenges. Some scholars view him as a historical figure, potentially a spiritual reformer influenced by Greek thought and Ionian traditions like the Eleusinian Mysteries. Others argue that he represents a synthesis of indigenous Thracian beliefs and Indo-European religious archetypes, making him a pivotal figure in the evolution of ancient spirituality.

Zalmoxis as a precursor to Jesus

Richard Carrier, a historian and proponent of the theory that Jesus originated as a mythological figure, which we have discussed earlier, characterizes the Zalmoxis cult as sharing key features with other mystery religions, such as those of Orpheus, Mithras, and Dionysus:

• A divine or semi-divine figure who acts as an intermediary between humanity and the divine realm.
• The promise of immortality for adherents, often linked to the afterlife.
• Rituals or symbolic acts (such as blood magic) that purify and renew the soul.
• Esoteric teachings that emphasize spiritual transformation and liberation from earthly concerns.
• A community centered around shared beliefs and sacred practices.

In a talk by Richard Carrier, which is only on YouTubeꜛ, he provocatively summarizes the core tenets of the Zalmoxis cult as follows:

• They have an imaginary friend named Zalmoxis.
• Who they insist is really real.
• And they’ll never die.
• Because this ancient demigod.
• Cleansed their soul with blood magic.
• Which grants them the power of living forever.
• In a magical place no one can see.

Carrier’s description distills the essence of the Zalmoxis cult into a framework that resonates with key elements of Greek mystery cults. The belief in an “imaginary friend” corresponds to the central role of a divine or semi-divine figure who mediates between humanity and the divine. The promise of immortality reflects the transformative spiritual experience offered by mystery religions. The concept of “blood magic” likely refers to rituals or symbolic acts that purify and renew the soul, paralleling similar ideas in later Christian doctrines of atonement and salvation.

Carrier suggests that the Zalmoxis narrative and cult provide an early model for the development of Christian theology. He argues that Paul, the key architect of Christianity, was well-versed in Greek language and culture. During Paul’s time, Greek education often involved exposure to a standard corpus of literature such as Herodotus’ works, that included the story of Zalmoxis and other mystery cults. Carrier posits that Paul’s conception of Jesus as a celestial figure who offers salvation through his sacrificial death may have been influenced by these narratives. 

Paul’s letters, the earliest surviving Christian texts, present a Jesus who operates in a celestial realm – according to Carrier’s hypothesis – , providing a spiritual form of salvation akin to the promises of mystery cults. The parallels with Zalmoxis are striking: both figures promise eternal life, both mediate between the divine and human realms, and both are associated with transformative rituals. While Christianity eventually adopted a more historical framing of Jesus, Carrier’s theory suggests that its initial form was deeply rooted in the mythological traditions exemplified by Zalmoxis.

Conclusion

The figure of Zalmoxis and the cult surrounding him offer a fascinating lens through which to explore the development of religious and philosophical traditions in the ancient world. His narrative exemplifies the fusion of local Thracian beliefs with broader Greek cultural and philosophical influences. As Richard Carrier argues, the Zalmoxis cult’s structure and themes bear significant similarities to the mystery religions that flourished in the Greco-Roman world and, ultimately, to the early Christian movement.

Of course, one needs to be cautious about boldly drawing parallels (a concept often referred to as “parallelomania”). However, interpreting Paul and the emergence of early Christianity within its context allows, I think, for a nuanced understanding of how ancient mythologies and mystery traditions might have influenced each other and even facilitated the development of new cults

References and further reading

• Richard Carrier, On the historicity of Jesus – Why we might have reason for doubt, 2014, Sheffield Phoenix Press, ISBN: 9781909697492
• Doherty, Earl, Lenz, Arnher E. (translator), The Jesus Puzzle: Did Christianity Begin with a Mythical Christ?, 2003, Angelika Lenz Verlag, ISBN: 978-3933037268
• Herodotus, The histories, 1997, Everyman, ISBN: 978-1857152340
• Eliade, Mircea, A history of religious ideas, Volume 1: From the stone age to the Eleusinian mysteries, 1981, University of Chicago Press, ISBN: 978-0226204017
• Burkert, Walter, Ancient mystery cults, 1989, Harvard University Press, ISBN: 978-0674033870
• Bremmer, Jan N., Initiation into the mysteries of the ancient world, 2014, De Gruyter, ISBN: 978-3110299298
• Richard Carrier, “Are Christians Delusional?” Richard Carrier Skepticon 3, 09.02.2011, YouTubeꜛ