Enoch: Another exemplar for the Jesus narrative?

The mythological framework surrounding early Christianity has been a topic of considerable debate a long time. Among scholars who advocate a non-historical or mythological Jesus, such as Richard Carrier, the evolution of Jesus as a theological construct becomes a lens through which the influence of apocryphal texts can be assessed. One of the key texts in this discourse is the Book of Enoch (also known as 1 Enoch), a Jewish pseudepigraphal work that profoundly shaped Second Temple Jewish thought.

Enoch, William Blake, 1807, lithograph. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain)

The Enochian worldview in Second Temple Judaism

The Book of Enoch presents a complex cosmology and eschatology that played a pivotal role in the religious imagination of Second Temple Judaism. Composed over several centuries, from the third century BCE to the first century CE, the text is divided into several sections, including the Book of Watchers, the Similitudes of Enoch, and the Astronomical Book. Central to Enochian theology is the figure of Enoch himself—a human being who is taken up into heaven, transformed into a semi-divine being, and given privileged knowledge about the workings of the cosmos and the fate of the righteous and the wicked.

Several core themes in the Book of Enoch resonate with early Christian teachings, particularly those found in apocalyptic literature and Christological doctrine:

1. The Son of Man motif: In the Similitudes of Enoch, the Son of Man appears as a pre-existent, heavenly figure who acts as a judge in the final judgment. This characterization closely parallels the depiction of Jesus in the synoptic Gospels and the Book of Revelation, where he is portrayed as both judge and savior.
2. Heavenly ascent and divine transformation: Enoch’s ascent to heaven and transformation into a divine-like being echoes the later Christian notion of Jesus’ ascension and exaltation. Within a mythological framework, this parallel suggests that the narrative of Jesus’ resurrection and ascension may have drawn upon pre-existing Enochian archetypes.
3. The role of angels and cosmic struggle: The Book of Watchers details the rebellion of the fallen angels and their corruption of the earth, leading to divine judgment. Early Christian texts, such as the Pauline epistles and the apocryphal Book of Revelation, similarly emphasize a cosmic struggle between good and evil, with Jesus positioned as the ultimate victor.

Richard Carrier’s mythological Jesus and Enochian parallels

Richard Carrier, in his work On the Historicity of Jesus, posits that the figure of Jesus originated not as a historical person but as a celestial being constructed from Jewish scriptural interpretations and theological expectations. Within this framework, the influence of texts like the Book of Enoch becomes particularly significant. If early Christian sects were engaged in reinterpreting Jewish apocalyptic literature to fit their theological agenda, it is plausible that the Enochian Son of Man figure provided a template for the mythological Christ.

Carrier argues that many elements of the Jesus narrative, such as his miraculous birth, death, resurrection, and role as cosmic judge, can be seen as adaptations of earlier Jewish and Hellenistic mythological motifs. The Book of Enoch, with its vivid portrayal of divine-human intermediaries and its rich eschatological themes, offers a compelling source for such adaptations. For example, the Enochian notion of a righteous remnant who will be vindicated in the end times parallels early Christian teachings about the followers of Christ inheriting the kingdom of God.

Parallels with the logos concept

In addition to parallels with Enoch, scholars such as Carrier have drawn attention to the similarities between Enochian motifs and Philo of Alexandria’s logos concept. Both frameworks involve a pre-existent, heavenly figure who acts as an intermediary between God and humanity. While the Enochian Son of Man plays a role in divine judgment and intercession, Philo’s logos functions as a divine agent in creation and revelation.

Carrier’s hypothesis suggests that early Christian sects could have synthesized elements from both the Enochian and logos traditions to construct a comprehensive theological framework for Jesus. By combining the cosmic Son of Man figure from Enoch with the philosophical logos concept, early Christians could present Jesus as both a divine judge and the incarnate word of God, appealing to both Jewish apocalyptic expectations and Hellenistic philosophical audiences.

Theological synthesis and early Christian doctrine

The assimilation of Enochian themes into early Christian thought can be seen in several key doctrinal developments:

1. Christ as the pre-existent Son of Man: The synoptic Gospels frequently refer to Jesus as the Son of Man, a title that would have carried apocalyptic connotations for a Jewish audience familiar with the Book of Enoch. By appropriating this title, early Christians positioned Jesus within an established eschatological framework, enhancing his legitimacy as the agent of divine judgment.
2. The dualistic cosmology of good and evil: The cosmic dualism presented in the Book of Watchers, where the fallen angels corrupt humanity and await judgment, finds echoes in early Christian dualism. Paul’s writings, for instance, emphasize the struggle between the forces of light and darkness, with Jesus as the bringer of salvation and light.
3. Heavenly intercession and priesthood: In the Similitudes of Enoch, the Son of Man acts as an intercessor for the righteous. This role is mirrored in early Christian theology, particularly in the Epistle to the Hebrews, where Jesus is portrayed as the ultimate high priest who intercedes on behalf of humanity.

Comparison with Greco-Roman mystery cults

In line with the discussion of Philo’s logos and Enochian themes, it is worth noting that early Christian theology did not emerge in isolation but was influenced by a broader religious context that included Greco-Roman mystery cults. Carrier emphasizes that mystery religions, such as those of Osiris and Mithras, often involved themes of death, resurrection, and cosmic salvation. Just as these cults reinterpreted mythological figures to serve theological functions, early Christians may have adapted Jewish apocalyptic figures like Enoch and Hellenistic philosophical concepts like the logos to construct their Christological narrative.

This syncretic approach would have allowed early Christians to appeal to a diverse audience, blending Jewish eschatological hopes with Hellenistic philosophical ideals and mystery cult motifs. Carrier’s hypothesis, therefore, frames early Christianity as a dynamic fusion of religious traditions, with figures like Enoch and the logos serving as crucial building blocks in the mythological construction of Jesus.

Conclusion

The mythological figure of Enoch occupies a significant place in the intellectual and theological milieu from which early Christianity emerged. His portrayal as a divinely transformed intermediary and cosmic judge likely inspired key aspects of the early Christian Jesus narrative. Enoch’s ascent to heaven, his role in divine judgment, and his unique relationship with celestial forces provided a rich framework for reimagining Jesus within an apocalyptic context. Early Christian communities’ adoption and reinterpretation of Enochian motifs highlight the syncretic nature of Christian origins. Far from being an isolated phenomenon, early Christianity appears as a dynamic fusion of Jewish apocalyptic traditions centered on figures like Enoch and broader Hellenistic religious ideas.

References and further reading

• Richard Carrier, On the historicity of Jesus – Why we might have reason for doubt, 2014, Sheffield Phoenix Press, ISBN: 9781909697492
• Collins, J. J., The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature, 2016, Eerdmans, ISBN: 978-0802872791
• VanderKam, J. C., Enoch and the growth of an apocalyptic tradition, 2023, Pickwick Publications, ISBN: 978-1666786286
• Nickelsburg, George W. E., 1 Enoch: A Commentary on the Book of Enoch, 2001, Fortress Press, ISBN: 978-0800660741
• Wright, N. T., The Resurrection of the Son of God, 2003, Fortress Press, ISBN: 978-0800626792
• Doherty, Earl, Lenz, Arnher E. (translator), The Jesus Puzzle: Did Christianity Begin with a Mythical Christ?, 2003, Angelika Lenz Verlag, ISBN: 978-3933037268
• Bart D. Ehrman, Did Jesus Exist?, 2013, HarperOne, ISBN: 9780062206442
• Price, Robert M., The Christ-Myth Theory and Its Problems American Atheist Press, 2012, ISBN: 978-1578840175