The influence of Egyptian religious concepts on Judaism

The religious traditions of ancient Egypt, with their deep theological frameworks, complex pantheon, and ritual practices, played a significant role in shaping the ancient Near Eastern religious landscape. Given the long historical interaction between Egypt and the Israelite people, including the Israelites’ sojourn in Egypt and subsequent Exodus, it is natural to explore how Egyptian religious ideas may have influenced the development of Judaism. While Judaism ultimately developed into a strictly monotheistic religion, certain themes, symbols, and theological ideas found in Egyptian religion appear to have left a lasting mark on Jewish thought and practice.

Inscription from the Royal Tomb of Amarna depicting Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and two of their daughters (obscured) worshipping, or ‘adoring’, the Aten. New Kingdom, late 18th Dynasty. Amarna, Egypt. The Egyptian Museum, Cairo. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain)

Historical interaction between Egypt and the Israelites

The connection between the Israelites and Egypt is most famously recounted in the Hebrew Bible, particularly in the story of the Israelites’ enslavement in Egypt and their eventual liberation under Moses. This narrative, central to Jewish identity and theology, establishes Egypt as a significant cultural and historical point of reference for the Israelites. However, the relationship between these two peoples extended beyond this narrative.

Throughout the First Temple period, the kingdoms of Israel and Judah maintained diplomatic, military, and trade relations with Egypt. Egyptian influence on Canaanite culture during the Late Bronze Age and early Iron Age was significant, as evidenced by archaeological findings of Egyptian artifacts and motifs in the region. These interactions provided a conduit through which Egyptian religious ideas could permeate Israelite culture.

Key areas of Egyptian influence on Judaism

The concept of divine kingship

One of the central elements of Egyptian religion was the concept of divine kingship. Pharaohs were considered divine or semi-divine beings, often regarded as the earthly incarnation of the god Horus and later associated with the sun god Ra. While Israelite religion rejected the idea of a human king as a deity, echoes of this concept can be seen in the way Jewish texts describe kingship, particularly in messianic expectations.

The messianic idea in Judaism envisions a future king from the line of David who will rule with divine authority and bring about an era of peace and justice. Though distinct from Egyptian notions of divine kingship, this concept similarly blends the idea of human leadership with divine purpose and approval.

Creation narratives and cosmology

Egyptian religious texts, such as the Memphite Theology and the Hermopolitan Ogdoad, present creation narratives involving primordial waters and the emergence of order from chaos. The Hebrew Bible’s creation story in Genesis 1 similarly begins with the motif of primordial waters, over which the spirit of God hovers before bringing order to the cosmos through divine speech.

While the Genesis account is unique in its monotheistic framework, the thematic parallels with Egyptian cosmology suggest a shared cultural milieu in which such ideas circulated. The emphasis on bringing order out of chaos, a central theme in both Egyptian and Israelite cosmology, underscores the enduring influence of ancient Near Eastern religious thought.

The symbolism of light and darkness

In Egyptian religion, light was often associated with the sun god Ra, who traveled across the sky by day and through the underworld by night, representing the cycle of life, death, and rebirth. This duality of light and darkness, life and death, found symbolic resonance in Jewish thought.

The Hebrew Bible frequently employs the imagery of light and darkness to convey theological ideas, such as God’s creation of light (Genesis 1:3) and the struggle between righteousness and wickedness. The concept of God as a source of light (e.g., Psalm 27:1: “The Lord is my light and my salvation”) may have drawn on broader ancient Near Eastern traditions, including those of Egypt.

Ritual purity and the priesthood

Ritual purity was a central concern in both Egyptian and Israelite religious practice. In Egypt, the priesthood was responsible for maintaining the purity required to serve the gods in temples, with elaborate purification rituals and dress codes. Similarly, the Israelite priesthood, particularly as outlined in the Book of Leviticus, emphasizes strict regulations concerning purity, sacrifices, and temple service.

The parallels between the Egyptian and Israelite priesthoods suggest a possible influence, although the monotheistic framework of Judaism marked a significant departure. The emphasis on holiness, purity, and the role of priests as mediators between the divine and human realms reflects shared religious concerns, adapted to fit the distinctive theology of Judaism.

Afterlife beliefs and burial practices

Egyptian religion is famously known for its elaborate beliefs about the afterlife, including the judgment of the dead, the concept of a final resting place in the Field of Reeds, and the importance of burial rituals. While early Israelite religion did not emphasize the afterlife to the same extent, later Jewish writings, particularly during the Second Temple period, show a growing interest in eschatology and the resurrection of the dead.

The notion of a final judgment and the resurrection of the righteous, as seen in texts like Daniel 12:2, may have been influenced in part by Egyptian ideas about the afterlife and moral accountability after death. While Judaism developed its own distinctive eschatological vision, the broader cultural context of the ancient Near East, including Egyptian thought, likely played a role in shaping these ideas.

Potential influence of the Egyptian Aten god on YHWH

One of the most intriguing potential influences on Israelite religion is the brief monotheistic experiment of Pharaoh Akhenaten during the Amarna period (14th century BCE). Akhenaten elevated Aten, the sun disk, to the status of the sole god, rejecting the traditional Egyptian pantheon. This radical departure from polytheism represents one of the earliest recorded instances of monotheism.

Relief depicting Akhenaten and Nefertiti with three of their daughters under the rays of Aten; Amarna-period, ca. 1350-1340 BCE, limestone. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC-BY-SA 4.0)

Similarities between Atenism and YHWH worship

Both Atenism and early Israelite monotheism emphasize the worship of a singular deity with universal authority. Aten was portrayed as the sole source of life and light, a theme echoed in descriptions of YHWH in biblical texts, such as Psalm 104, which bears striking thematic similarities to the Great Hymn to Aten.

While it is unlikely that Atenism directly influenced the worship of YHWH, the parallels suggest that the idea of monotheism was not isolated to Israel and may have been part of a broader religious discourse in the ancient Near East. The theological emphasis on a single creator god who sustains life could have resonated with or inspired the development of similar ideas among the Israelites.

Distinctive features of YHWH worship

Despite these parallels, YHWH worship diverged significantly from Atenism in its ethical and covenantal dimensions. Whereas Atenism focused primarily on the cosmic and natural order, Israelite religion placed a strong emphasis on moral behavior, justice, and the covenant between God and His people. This covenantal aspect, central to Jewish theology, marks a significant departure from the impersonal nature of Aten worship.

Caution against overvaluing parallels

While exploring these parallels provides fascinating insights, scholars caution against overvaluing the historical connections or drawing direct lines of influence without sufficient evidence. The phenomenon known as “parallelomania” — an overzealous identification of similarities between religious or cultural systems — serves as a reminder to approach such comparisons critically. It is essential to balance recognition of potential influences with an understanding of the distinct contexts and developments that shaped each tradition independently.

Scholarly perspectives on Egyptian influence

Scholars have long debated the extent to which Egyptian religion influenced Judaism. Some, such as James Pritchard, emphasize the shared cultural environment of the ancient Near East and argue that Egyptian religious concepts naturally found their way into Israelite thought through prolonged contact and interaction. Others caution against drawing direct lines of influence, noting the distinctiveness of Jewish monotheism and its unique covenantal relationship with God.

Nevertheless, the parallels between Egyptian and Israelite religious practices and concepts suggest that Egypt was more than a backdrop to the biblical narrative of the Exodus; it was a significant cultural force that left an imprint on the religious imagination of ancient Israel.

Conclusion

The influence of Egyptian religious concepts on Judaism highlights the dynamic interplay between cultures in the ancient Near East. While Judaism ultimately emerged as a distinct monotheistic tradition, it did so in dialogue with the religious ideas of its neighbors, including Egypt. The shared themes of divine kingship, creation narratives, light and darkness symbolism, ritual purity, and afterlife beliefs suggest a common cultural heritage that shaped the religious landscape of the ancient world.

References and further reading

• Jan Assmann, From Akhenaten to Moses - Ancient Egypt and religious change, 2014, Oxford University Press, ISBN: 9789774166310
• Jan Assmann, Ägypten - Theologie und Frömmigkeit einer frühen Hochkultur, 1984, Verlag W. Kohlhammer, ISBN: 9783170083714
• Jan Assmann, Theologie und Weisheit im alten Ägypten, 2005, Wilhelm Fink Verlag, ISBN: 9783770540693
• James Karl Hoffmeier, Akhenaten And The Origins Of Monotheism, 2015, Oxford University Press, USA, ISBN: 9780199792085
• Assmann, Jan, The Search for God in Ancient Egypt, 2001, Cornell University Press, ISBN: 978-0801487293
• Redford, Donald B., Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times, 1992, Princeton University Press, ISBN: 978-0691036069
• Pritchard, James B. (ed.), Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 1969, Princeton University Press, ISBN: 978-0691035031
• Hendel, Ronald, Remembering Abraham: Culture, Memory, and History in the Hebrew Bible, 2005, Oxford University Press, ISBN: 978-0195177961
• Smith, Mark S., The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel’s Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts, 2003, Oxford University Press, ISBN: 978-0195167689