Brahman: The ultimate reality in Hindu philosophy

In Hindu philosophy, Brahman is the foundational metaphysical concept representing the ultimate, unchanging, and infinite reality that underlies the cosmos. Unlike deities or gods worshipped in various forms, Brahman is formless, eternal, and beyond sensory perception. Philosophers from different schools of Vedanta have extensively debated and interpreted the nature of Brahman, shaping the spiritual discourse of Hinduism for millennia. This post briefly explores the historical development, philosophical interpretations, and theological nuances of Brahman in Hindu thought.

The Hindu deities Vishnu, Lakshmi, Shiva, Parvati and Ganesha. These deities have distinct and complex personalities, yet are often viewed as aspects of and are worshipped as incarnations of the same Ultimate Reality called Brahman. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 4.0)

Origins of the concept of Brahman

The idea of Brahman first appears in the Vedic texts, particularly in the Upanishads, which serve as the philosophical culmination of the earlier ritualistic Vedas. In the early Vedic period (circa 1500–1000 BCE), the term brahman referred to the power inherent in Vedic chants and rituals. Over time, however, it evolved into a more abstract philosophical concept, representing the essence of the universe.

The Upanishads (circa 800–300 BCE) marked a shift in focus from external ritualism to internal contemplation. In these texts, Brahman is described as the ultimate principle underlying all existence:

• Taittirīya Upanishad: “Brahman is that from which all beings are born, by which they live, and into which they return.”
• Chāndogya Upanishad: The famous dictum “tat tvam asi” (“You are that”) asserts the unity of the individual self (ātman) with Brahman.
• Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upanishad: Describes Brahman as “neti, neti” (“not this, not this”), emphasizing that it transcends all descriptions and conceptualizations.

Philosophical interpretations of Brahman

The nature of Brahman has been a central theme in Indian philosophy, especially within the Vedanta school. Different philosophers have interpreted Brahman in various ways, leading to the development of distinct sub-schools of Vedanta.

Advaita Vedanta: Non-dualistic interpretation

Advaita Vedanta, as articulated by Ādi Śaṅkara (8th century CE), holds that Brahman is the only ultimate reality, and everything else, including the world and individual selves, is an illusory appearance (māyā). According to Advaita, Brahman is:

• Nirguṇa Brahman: Without attributes, qualities, or form. It is pure consciousness and beyond all dualities.
• Non-dual: There is no distinction between Brahman and the self (ātman); realizing this unity leads to liberation (mokṣa).
• Indescribable: Since Brahman transcends thought and language, it can only be understood through direct experience, not intellectual reasoning.

Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedanta: Qualified non-dualism

Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedanta, propounded by Rāmānuja (11th century CE), offers a different perspective by asserting that while Brahman is one, it possesses distinguishing attributes and qualities (viśeṣa). Key aspects of this interpretation include:

• Saguṇa Brahman: Brahman is identified with a personal God, specifically Viṣṇu, who has attributes such as compassion and omniscience.
• Unity with distinction: The individual self (ātman) and the world are real but are dependent on and exist as modes of Brahman.
• Devotion as the path: Liberation is achieved through loving devotion (bhakti) to Brahman, who is worshipped in a personal form.

Dvaita Vedanta: Dualistic interpretation

Dvaita Vedanta, developed by Madhva (13th century CE), takes a dualistic approach, positing a fundamental distinction between Brahman (Viṣṇu) and the individual selves. According to Dvaita:

• Brahman is a personal deity: Brahman is not an abstract principle but a personal God who governs the universe.
• Dualism: The self and Brahman are eternally distinct, and liberation involves eternal service to Brahman in a state of bliss.
• Emphasis on grace: Liberation depends on the grace of Brahman (Viṣṇu), which is attained through devotion and righteous conduct.

Nirguṇa and saguṇa Brahman

A recurring theme in the discourse on Brahman is the distinction between nirguṇa (without attributes) and saguṇa (with attributes) Brahman:

• Nirguṇa Brahman: Refers to the ultimate, formless reality that transcends all qualities and dualities. This is the focus of Advaita Vedanta, which emphasizes Brahman as pure consciousness.
• Saguṇa Brahman: Refers to the personal aspect of Brahman, often associated with deities such as Viṣṇu, Śiva, and the Goddess. In devotional traditions, saguṇa Brahman is worshipped as a loving, compassionate being who intervenes in the world.

The Bhagavad Gītā reconciles these two views by stating that while the highest reality is nirguṇa, worship of saguṇa Brahman is a valid path for those who seek a tangible connection with the divine.

Brahman and the world: creation and cosmology

Vedantic cosmology posits that the world is a manifestation of Brahman. However, different schools explain the relationship between Brahman and the world in distinct ways:

1. Advaita Vedanta: The world is an illusory projection (vivarta) of Brahman, created by ignorance (avidyā). It appears real only until one attains knowledge of non-duality.
2. Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedanta: The world is a real modification (pariṇāma) of Brahman, and it exists as part of Brahman’s body. Brahman is both the material and efficient cause of the universe.
3. Dvaita Vedanta: The world is real and distinct from Brahman, created by Brahman but eternally dependent on Him.

Liberation (mokṣa) and the realization of Brahman

In all schools of Vedanta, the ultimate goal of life is to realize Brahman and attain liberation from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsāra). The paths to this realization vary:

• Advaita Vedanta: Liberation is achieved through jñāna (knowledge) and meditation, leading to the direct experience of one’s identity with Brahman.
• Viśiṣṭādvaita and Dvaita Vedanta: Liberation is attained through bhakti (devotion) and divine grace, with an emphasis on surrendering to the will of Brahman.

Conclusion

Brahman represents the central and most profound concept in Hindu philosophy, encapsulating the ultimate nature of reality and the goal of spiritual life. Its various interpretations across different schools of Vedanta offer rich philosophical insights and pathways toward liberation. Whether conceived as the formless absolute or the personal God, Brahman represents as a unifying principle that transcends the multiplicity of Hindu beliefs and practices.

References and further reading

• S. Radhakrishnan, Indian philosophy, vol. 2, 2017, Forgotten Books, ISBN: 978-0282624736
• Chandradhar Sharma, The Advaita tradition in Indian philosophy, 2024, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN: 978-9357600705
• Hajime Nakamura, A history of early Vedanta philosophy, 1990, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN: 978-8120806511
• S. Radhakrishnan, The principal Upanishads, 1995, HarperCollins, ISBN: 978-8172231248
• Eliot Deutsch, Advaita Vedanta: A philosophical reconstruction, 1969, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN: 978-0824802714
• Chandradhar Sharma, A critical survey of Indian philosophy, 2000, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN: 978-8120803657
• M. Hiriyanna, Essentials of Indian philosophy, 1995, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN: 978-8120813045