The Dali Kingdom Scroll

December 21, 2024 12 minute read see also comments

In the course of my recent research, I encountered a fascinating Buddhist handscroll known as the “Kingdom of Dali Buddhist Volume of Paintings”, created by Zhang Shengwenꜛ around 1180. This monumental work, spanning over 16 m in length, vividly illustrates the religious and political life of the Dali Kingdomꜛ, a flourishing state in present-day Yunnan province, China, during the 10th to 13th centuries. It depicts Buddhist figures, including bodhisattvas, arhats, and royal processions, reflecting the close integration of Buddhism and monarchy in Dali. Commissioned during the reign of King Duan Zhixing, the scroll symbolizes his dual role as both a devout Buddhist and a political leader.

Panoramic detail of the scroll, depicting Shakyamuni Buddha in the center. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain).

What fascinates me about this scroll is its intricate portrayal of religious figures and ceremonies, which not only serves as a visual record of the kingdom’s cultural life but also highlights the complex relationship between religion and politics in this ancient Asian kingdom. The scroll’s detailed depictions of Buddhist iconography and royal processions provide a glimpse into the spiritual and ceremonial practices of the Dali Kingdom, illuminating the kingdom’s unique culture and its place within the history of East Asian Buddhism. Today, this scroll is preserved at the National Palace Museum in Taipei, Taiwan.

Fortunately, much of the scroll’s content is publicly accessible onlineꜛ, allowing us to explore this remarkable piece of Buddhist art. In this post, we briefly explore the historical context of the Dali Kingdom and take a closer look at the artistic structure and themes of the handscroll.

The Dali Kingdom (937–1253)

The Dali Kingdomꜛ, situated in what is now Yunnan province in China, was a prosperous and politically independent kingdom during the 10th to 13th centuries. Established in 937 by Duan Siping, the kingdom succeeded the Nanzhao Kingdom and quickly became a regional power in Southeast Asia, known for its unique cultural and religious identity. Its geographic location placed it between the Chinese Song Dynasty and the kingdoms of Southeast Asia, allowing it to act as a cultural and economic bridge. Buddhism, particularly the Mahayana and Vajrayana schools, played a central role in the kingdom’s political and cultural life.

China in 1142, with the Kingdom of Dali located in the South West, modern China’s Yunnan province. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0).

Buddhism had been introduced to the region during the earlier Nanzhao period, and by the time of the Dali Kingdom, it had become deeply entrenched in both the court and the populace. The rulers of Dali frequently identified themselves with Buddhist ideals, portraying themselves as protectors of the Dharma, or Buddhist law. This fusion of Buddhism with the political structure is vividly captured in artistic works, particularly in Zhang Shengwen’s famous Kingdom of Dali Buddhist Volume of Paintings.

Bronze statues of Bodhisattva Guanyin from Dali Kingdom. The Dali Guanyins are styled after an Indian monk who introduced Avalokitesvara/Guanyin worship to the area around 600 AD. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 2.0).

The Dali Kingdom embraced a form of state Buddhism where kings and nobles often served as patrons of religious institutions, constructing temples, commissioning statues, and sponsoring the production of religious art. The royal family’s identification with Buddhism helped legitimize their rule, aligning them with spiritual authority. One of the most well-known temples, the Three Pagodas of Chongsheng Templeꜛ, remains a testament to the kingdom’s religious devotion.

Dharani Column, Dali Kingdom, around 1220. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 2.0).

This religious identity also reflected the kingdom’s multicultural nature. Influences from Tibet, India, and the Tang and Song Dynasties can be observed in Dali’s religious practices. The Buddhist art of Dali, particularly the handscrolls and murals, reveals these multi-layered influences while simultaneously exhibiting a distinct local style that blended foreign religious elements with indigenous aesthetics.

The handscroll

The “Kingdom of Dali Buddhist Volume of Paintings” (大理國梵像卷), completed around 1180 by Zhang Shengwenꜛ, is an elaborate visual documentation of the religious and political life of the kingdom. This monumental work, stretching over 16 m long, is a handscroll rendered in ink and color on paper, divided into three sections that depict religious figures, ceremonies, and the close relationship between the monarchy and Buddhism.

Panoramic detail of the scroll, depicting Shakyamuni Buddha in the center. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain).

Zhang Shengwen was a court painter under the Dali monarch Duan Zhixing (reigned 1171–1200), who was both a king and a devout Buddhist. This context explains why the scroll places so much emphasis on Buddhist figures and their relationship with the royal family. The primary purpose of the scroll seems to have been to illustrate the king’s devotion to Buddhism and to visually narrate how the spiritual and temporal powers were intertwined in Dali.

Artistic structure and themes

The scroll is notable for its intricate portrayal of bodhisattvas, arhats, and scenes of worship, combining dynamic human forms with delicate brushwork. These religious scenes represent both local interpretations of Buddhist imagery and connections to broader East Asian art traditions. The scroll is divided into distinct parts that depict religious rituals and royal processions, all surrounded by depictions of important Buddhist figures. Each figure is drawn with great precision, showing how Zhang Shengwen mastered both religious symbolism and portraiture.

Panoramic detail of the scroll, depicting several Buddhas and bodhisattvas. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain).

One of the key highlights of the scroll is the depiction of the Sixteen Arhats. These arhats are spiritual figures in Buddhism who have attained enlightenment but, unlike bodhisattvas, have chosen not to remain on earth to guide others toward the same state. The Dali Kingdom, while largely under the influence of Mahayana Buddhism, reflected some Vajrayana elements as well, which is why figures like these arhats, who are sometimes more prominent in Tibetan and Chinese Buddhism, played a significant role in the kingdom’s religious life. The arhats, portrayed in highly detailed and stylized robes, are depicted with intense expressions that reflect the painter’s ability to combine spirituality and realism in his figures.

Panoramic detail of the scroll, depicting several arhats. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain).

In addition to religious figures, the scroll illustrates several processions where the king, monks, and court officials participate in religious ceremonies. The meticulous portrayal of ceremonial attire, architecture, and sacred objects gives modern viewers a glimpse into the ceremonial life of the Dali court. The handscroll thus functions not only as a piece of religious art but also as a documentary work that provides historical insights into the cultural life of the Dali Kingdom.

Panoramic detail of the scroll, depicting several arhats along with different emperors. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain).

The role of the scroll in religious and political propaganda

The “Kingdom of Dali Buddhist Volume of Paintings” was likely commissioned as both a religious devotion and a tool of political propaganda. By visually aligning himself and his court with Buddhist ideals, Duan Zhixing sought to assert his rule as divinely sanctioned. The scroll’s religious imagery symbolizes both his devotion to the Dharma and his role as a protector of Buddhism. As a medium of royal propaganda, the scroll was intended to communicate to both the kingdom’s subjects and its neighbors that the king’s rule was not only politically justified but also spiritually ordained.

Panoramic detail of the scroll, probably showing a ruler worshipping and talking to a bodhisattva. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain).

The integration of Buddhist and political themes reflects a broader pattern observed in Chinese history, where rulers often sought to legitimize their rule through association with religious authority. The Dali Kingdom, being a smaller state surrounded by powerful neighbors such as the Song Dynasty to the east and the Tibetan Empire to the west, used Buddhism as a unifying and legitimizing force, enhancing both internal cohesion and diplomatic stature.

Details of the figures

Here is a closer look at the figures depicted in the scroll:

Panoramic detail of the scroll, depicting a triad of two Bodhisattvas or Buddhas, probably surrounding the Buddha Shakyamnui. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain).

Panoramic detail of the scroll, probably depicting Maitreya Buddha, the Buddha of the future and great world teacher to come. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain).

Panoramic detail of the scroll, showing a narrative section of the scroll. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain).

Panoramic detail of the scroll, depicting several bodhisattvas and different emperors. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain).

Two arhats (detail). Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain).

Possibly two bodhisattvas (or rulers?) surrounded by worldly servants and devotees. Sources and hi-res versions: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (left) and Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (right) (license: public domain).

Panoramic detail of the scroll, depicting several emperors and members of the royal court in their service to the Dharma. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain).

Panoramic detail of the scroll, depicting several bodhisattvas and different emperors. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain).

Detail of the scroll, showing inscriptions. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain).

Left: Detail of the scroll, depcting Shakyamuni Buddha. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain). – Right: Detail of the scroll, depcting a bodhisattva or dharmapala (dharma protector). Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain).

Detail of the scroll, depcting a buddha or a bodhisattva. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain).

Left: Detail of the scroll, depcting an arhat. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain). – Right: Detail of the scroll, depcting a Buddha or bodhisattva. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain).

Left: Detail of the scroll, depcting a Buddha or bodhisattva. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain). – Right: Detail of the scroll, depcting the worship of a stupa-like shrine. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain).

Left: Detail of the scroll, depcting a Buddha or bodhisattva. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain). – Right: Detail of the scroll, depcting a Buddha or bodhisattva. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain).

Left: Detail of the scroll, depcting an arhat or an emperor. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain). – Right: Detail of the scroll, depcting a Buddha or bodhisattva. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain).

Left: Detail of the scroll, depcting bodhisattva (Guanyin?). Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain). – Right: Detail of the scroll, depcting bodhisattva (Guanyin?). Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain).

Left: Detail of the scroll, depcting a Buddha or bodhisattva. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain). – Right: Detail of the scroll, depcting bodhisattva (Guanyin?). Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain).

Left: Detail of the scroll, depcting a Buddha or bodhisattva. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain). – Right: Detail of the scroll, depcting a Buddha or bodhisattva. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain).

Left: Detail of the scroll, depcting bodhisattva (Guanyin?). Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain). – Right: Detail of the scroll, depcting a Buddha or bodhisattva. Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain).

Detail of the scroll, depcting a dharmapala (dharma protector). Source and hi-res version: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain).

You can view the full scroll as well as further detail views on Wikimedia Commonsꜛ.

Conclusion

The Kingdom of Dali Buddhist Volume of Paintings, now housed in the National Palace Museum in Taipei, Taiwan, remains an important visual record of the Dali Kingdom’s cultural and religious life. Its preservation has enabled historians and scholars to explore the intricate dynamics of politics, religion, and art in this small yet culturally vibrant kingdom.

Zhang Shengwen’s scroll is celebrated for its detailed representation of Buddhist iconography and its complex layering of religious, political, and historical narratives. The scroll is considered not only a masterpiece of religious art but also a key document that illustrates the sophisticated intertwining of politics and religion during the Dali Kingdom’s peak.

The Kingdom of Dali Buddhist Volume of Paintings encapsulates the spirit of a kingdom where faith and power were deeply interwoven. This remarkable work of art offers invaluable insights into the unique cultural identity of an ancient Asian kingdom and its role in the broader history of East Asian Buddhism.

References and further reading

Wikimedia Commons site on the scrollꜛ
Wikipedia article on the Dali Kingdomꜛ
Wikipedia article on Zhang Shengwenꜛ
Article “Understanding Arhats in Chinese Buddhism Through a Fine Classical Painting” (Auctions News)ꜛ
Herman, John E., Amid the Clouds and Mist China’s Colonization of Guizhou, 1200–1700, 2007, Harvard University Asia Center, ISBN: 978-0-674-02591-2
Huang, Caiwen, The Lancang Guard and the Construction of Ming society in northwest Yunnan, 2020
Yang, Bin, Between Winds and Clouds: The Making of Yunnan (Second Century BCE to Twentieth Century CE), 2008, Columbia University Press
West, Barbara A., Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania, 2009