Rood screens and the medieval clerical-laity divide

In a recently broadcast documentary on ARTEꜛ, I learned about an architectural element in medieval Christian churches that is rarely seen today: the rood screen. This element, which visually and physically separated the clerical space of the choir (the area around the altar) from the nave occupied by lay worshippers, caught my interest and led me to do further research into the social and theological aspects that prevailed in medieval churches. I discovered that medieval Christianity was very different from what is practiced today. Instead of a participatory approach, in which all believers actively participate in worship, there was a clear separation between clergy and laity. Rather, medieval Christianity was hierarchical and exclusive in character, with the relationship between clergy and laity characterized by distance and dependence. Here is a brief summary of what I have been able to find out so far.

Nave St. Maria im Kapitol, Cologne. Above the altar is the preserved rood screen, the earliest Renaissance work in Cologne. (commissioned in 1517-23). Today, it supports the organ.

The medieval church as a hierarchical institution

The medieval Church was fundamentally hierarchical, reflecting the feudal structure of the broader society. The clergy, considered the spiritual elite, were the guardians of divine truth, the interpreters of Scripture, and the mediators of God’s grace. The laity, by contrast, were viewed as dependent on the clergy for access to salvation.

The clergy underwent rigorous training in Latin, theology, the liturgical traditions and scholastic concepts of the Church. This education set them apart not only spiritually but also intellectually from the largely uneducated laity. Access to the Bible was restricted; it was written in Latin (primarily in the Vulgata), a language the vast majority of laypeople could neither read nor understand. The clergy thus maintained exclusive control over Scripture and its interpretation.

Vulgata Sixtina, 1590. Until the Reformation, the Bible was only available in Latin, which was not understood by the majority of the population. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain)

Theologically, the clerics’ role as intermediaries was central. They administered the sacraments, which were considered essential for salvation. These included baptism, the Eucharist, penance, and last rites. Without clerical intervention, laypeople were believed to be cut off from divine grace. This dependency underscored the power and authority of the clerical class.

The role of architecture

One of the most striking representations of the clerical-laity divide is found in the architecture of medieval churches. Structures like rood screens (Lettner in German) and choir screens (Chorschranke in German) provided a physical barrier between the clergy performing sacred rites in the choir and the laity gathered in the nave.

Rood screens and their significance

Rood screens, often ornately carved and adorned with biblical imagery, were installed in both grand cathedrals and smaller parish churches. They symbolized the sanctity of the choir space, which was reserved for the clergy. Laypeople could rarely enter this space, reinforcing their separation from the sacred mysteries of the Eucharist.

Position of the rood screen (red line) in the floor plan of a church. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0)

This architectural design was deeply symbolic: it reminded the congregation of the clerical monopoly over the sacraments and the liturgy. The Eucharistic prayer, considered the pinnacle of the Mass, often occurred beyond the rood screen, and laypeople might only hear or catch glimpses of the ritual. This limited visibility emphasized their passive role in the divine drama.

Viollet-le-Duc choir of Saint Denis Abbey in Paris with rood screen, choir stalls and high altar. This schematic exemplifies the spatial separation inside a medieval church. While the clergy performed the liturgy behind the rood screen, the laity gathered in the nave and could only observe the rituals through the screen’s openings. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0)

Gothic rood screen in St. Pantaleon, Cologne. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 2.0)

Iconostasis in Eastern Orthodoxy

Both rood screens and iconostasis (the screen of icons in Eastern Orthodox churches; Greek ikón meaning “image” and stasis meaning “stand”) serve similar functions in physically and symbolically dividing the sacred space. However, the iconostasis is more than a barrier; it is a theological statement about the Incarnation and the intercession of the saints. The icons on the screen depict Christ, the Virgin Mary, and various saints, emphasizing their presence and mediation in the liturgy. The iconostasis is a visual representation of the heavenly realm, connecting the earthly congregation with the divine. Unlike the rood screen, the iconostasis remained an essential element of Eastern Orthodox worship, reflecting the mystery and sanctity of the Eucharist.

Classicist iconostasis from the 18th century in Finland, richly decorated with icons. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0)

For comparison: Detail of the rood screen of St. Maria im Kapitol, Cologne, showing intricate carvings of religious motifs.

Seating in early and medieval churches

In the early Christian church and throughout much of the medieval period, congregants typically stood during worship. Standing was considered a sign of respect, reverence, and active participation. The nave, the area where the laity gathered, was left open to accommodate standing worshippers. This open space was also practical for processions and other liturgical movements. Furthermore, the medieval Mass was largely non-verbal for the laity, who observed the rituals and participated passively rather than through spoken responses or collective singing. Standing allowed the congregation to focus on the altar and participate through gestures of reverence (e.g., kneeling during the Eucharist). Some seating or resting areas were provided for specific groups, such as the elderly, the infirm, or women with children. These were not formal pews but might include benches along the walls. Wealthy patrons or nobility sometimes had reserved seating or stalls near the front, emphasizing their status within the church hierarchy.

The clergy, monks, or nuns often had designated seating in the choir stalls, located within the choir area behind the rood screen (and thus separated from the nave) or near the high altar. These were usually intricately carved wooden stalls, designed for the Divine Office and other liturgical functions.

Stalls (about 1520) from the convent of the Servitins at St. Lucia. St. Maria in Lyskirchen, Cologne

Fixed seating for the laity (in the form of pews or benches) began to appear gradually in Western churches during the late medieval period, particularly in the 14th and 15th centuries. The installation of pews became more common after the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century, especially in Protestant churches where sermons played a central role in worship. Sermons required congregants to remain seated and attentive for extended periods. In Catholic churches, pews became more widespread after the Council of Trent (1545–1563; see below), as part of the broader standardization of worship.

The lay experience: Faith at a distance

For the medieval laity, Christianity was experienced through indirect participation. Their role was largely passive, shaped by visual, auditory, and ritualistic engagement rather than direct involvement in the sacred mysteries.

Ritual and symbolism

Lay worshippers often focused on peripheral rituals such as the veneration of relics, lighting candles, or participating in processions. These practices, while meaningful, were supplementary to the core liturgical acts performed by the clergy. Visual elements – stained glass windows, murals, and statues – were therefore crucial in conveying biblical stories and theological concepts to an illiterate population.

Limited access to the eucharist

One of the most critical expressions of the divide was the limited access to the Eucharist. Most laypeople received communion infrequently, often only once a year during Easter. The host (consecrated bread) was typically received kneeling at the altar rail, further reinforcing the hierarchical nature of the sacrament.

Theological foundations of separation

The separation between clergy and laity was not merely practical or architectural but deeply rooted in medieval theology.

How the clergy viewed themselves

The Church’s theology positioned the clergy as the sole mediators between God and humanity. The sacrament of holy orders conferred upon priests a unique spiritual authority, enabling them to consecrate the Eucharist, absolve sins, and perform other sacramental acts. This clerical power was seen as divinely ordained and unchallengeable.

Image from page 159 of “Military and religious life in the Middle Ages and at the period of the Renaissance” (1870). Fig. 100: Peter the Hermit delivering the Message of Simeon, Patriarch of Jerusalem, to Pope Urban II. From a Coloured Drawing by Germain Picavot in the Histoirc des Croisades,a Manuscript of the Fifteenth Century (Burgundian Library, Brussels). Source: Flickrꜛ (Internet Archive Book Imagesꜛ) (license: public domain)

The laity’s role

The laity’s spiritual life revolved around obedience and submission to the Church’s authority. They were expected to confess their sins to a priest, attend Mass, and follow the Church’s moral teachings. Their salvation was dependent on the clergy’s intercession and sacramental administration.

Lay spirituality and popular religion

Despite the hierarchical structure of the medieval Church and the restrictions placed on lay participation in liturgical practices, the laity found numerous ways to express and experience their faith. Within the boundaries set by Church doctrine, they developed a rich set of devotional practices that emphasized personal piety and communal belonging.

Veneration of saints

The veneration of saints was a cornerstone of lay spirituality. Saints were regarded as compassionate and approachable intercessors who could plead with God on behalf of the faithful. This belief stemmed from the idea that saints, having led exemplary lives of holiness, held a special place in the divine hierarchy. Their intercession offered laypeople a tangible connection to the divine, which might otherwise feel distant due to the Church’s hierarchical structure.

Pilgrimages to sites associated with saints, such as their tombs or places of miracles, became widespread. Major pilgrimage destinations, like Santiago de Compostela, Canterbury, and Cologne (housing the relics of the Magi), attracted thousands of visitors each year. These journeys were acts of devotion, penance, and even adventure, often serving as opportunities for communal bonding and spiritual renewal.

Sketch of the medieval shrine of the Magi. Cathedral Treasury of Cologne Cathedral, Cologne.

The collection and veneration of relics — objects associated with saints, such as bones, clothing, or items they touched — were equally popular. Relics were believed to convey the saints’ spiritual power, offering healing, protection, and divine favor. Local churches often housed relics to attract pilgrims and foster regional devotion.

Reliquary monstrance of SS. Damian and Laurence, Alois Kreiten, Cologne, end of the 19th century, Copper, gilded. The monstrance, a container for relics designed to be displayed during religious processions, contains bones of the saints. Cathedral Treasury of Cologne Cathedral, Cologne.

The celebration of saints’ feast days was another essential aspect of this devotion. These festivals often combined religious ceremonies with communal festivities, including processions, music, and feasting. Such events reinforced community identity and the integration of faith into daily life.

St. George, Middle Rhine, c. 1420, Oak, stripped of polychromy, base panel and lance replaced. According to legend, St. George freed a town from a dragon, to which people were regularly sacrificed and, in the end, almost a princess. As a result, the citizens converted to the Christian faith. As a Christian soldier, George later became a martyr. He is one of the most popular saints of the late Middle Ages. Schnütgen Museum, Cologne.

Ritual and community

In addition to their devotion to saints, medieval laypeople engaged in other practices that fostered a sense of spirituality and belonging.

The recitation of the rosary became a popular form of personal devotion, especially among those who could not participate fully in the Latin liturgy. The repetitive prayers, coupled with meditations on the life of Christ and the Virgin Mary, offered an accessible way to engage deeply with the mysteries of faith. By the late Middle Ages, the rosary had become a widespread devotional tool, often linked to the growing Marian devotion.

Dattenfeld Mother of God (Dattenfelder Muttergottes), Cologne, 1st half of the 14th century, walnut with old version. Kolumba Museum, Cologne.

Laypeople also participated in guilds and confraternities, which combined professional or trade associations with religious functions. These groups often funded chapels, commissioned altarpieces, and organized communal prayers or Masses for deceased members. Guilds were not only spiritual organizations but also social networks that provided mutual aid and reinforced communal ties.

The liturgical calendar shaped the rhythm of communal life, with major feasts such as Easter, Christmas, and Pentecost serving as focal points for both religious devotion and public celebration. Local festivals often incorporated elements of popular culture, such as plays, dances, and parades, blending sacred and secular traditions in ways that deepened faith while celebrating communal identity.

Challenges and reform

The exclusivity of the clerical class and the marginalization of the laity eventually led to tensions and demands for reform.

Pre-Reformation movements

Movements like the Waldensiansꜛ (a community of religious laypeople at the end of the 12th century ) and Lollardsꜛ (a movement in England since the late 14th century; they followed the teachings of John Wyclif and opposed the Catholic Church hierarchy) challenged the Church’s hierarchical structure, advocating for direct access to Scripture and a greater role for laypeople in spiritual matters. These groups were often persecuted as heretical, but their critiques paved the way for later reforms.

John Wycliffe is giving the Bible translation that bore his name to his Lollard followers. Painting by William Frederick Yeames (1835-1918). Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain)

The Reformation

The Protestant Reformation in the 16th century radically altered the relationship between clergy and laity. Reformers like Martin Luther emphasized the “[priesthood of all believersꜛ”, translated the Bible into vernacular languages, and simplified the liturgy to make it more accessible to laypeople. These changes marked a significant departure from the medieval model of clerical exclusivity.

Grossmünster church in Zurich with pulpit lier, copy of Bullinger’s chronicle of the Reformation, 1606. The Protestants In Protestantism, rood screens took on a completely different function. The pulpit, which in Protestant churches was now mounted on the rood screen, became the central place for the sermon, rather than separating the sacred choir area from the laity. The sermon became the central component of the service and was intended to instruct and admonish the faithful, which is why from then on mass could no longer take place behind a separate area. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain)

Pulpit lords in the Reformed Church of St. Peter in Zurich. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 2.5)

The Council of Trent and Catholic response

In response to the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church convened the Council of Trent (1545–1563), which sought to reaffirm traditional Catholic teachings while addressing some of the issues that had alienated laypeople during the medieval period. The Council aimed to restore the credibility of the clergy and improve the spiritual life of the laity, introducing reforms that balanced the Church’s hierarchical structure with a renewed emphasis on lay engagement.

Session of the Council of Trent in the church of Santa Maria Maggiore (Trent) (painting, late 17th century). Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain)

Key reforms

The Council upheld the use of Latin in the liturgy but standardized the Roman Riteꜛ (the form of the liturgy, Holy Mass and the sacraments celebrated since late antiquity within the Roman Catholic Church) to ensure consistency and clarity across the Catholic world. The resulting Roman Missal (1570; a missal is a liturgical book containing all instructions and texts necessary for the celebration of Mass throughout the year) provided a uniform liturgical structure that was easier to follow, even for laypeople. Although the Mass remained inaccessible in vernacular languages, this reform aimed to create a more universal and understandable form of worship.

One significant outcome of the Council was its emphasis on catechesis and preaching. Priests were now required to deliver homilies that explained Scripture and the liturgy in terms comprehensible to the laity. This marked a shift from the medieval focus on ritual performance alone to a more didactic and participatory approach – almost 1500 years after the early Christian Church had been founded.

To address widespread corruption and incompetence among the clergy, the Council mandated the establishment of seminaries for the proper education and moral training of priests. A better-educated clergy was intended to serve as more effective spiritual leaders for the laity, rebuilding trust and fostering a closer relationship between the two groups.

The Council encouraged greater lay participation in the sacraments, particularly the Eucharist. While communion frequency remained a point of gradual change, the emphasis on spiritual readiness and proper instruction sought to make the sacramental experience more meaningful for the faithful.

Recognizing the importance of lay spirituality outside the liturgy, the Council supported popular devotions like the rosary, pilgrimages, and veneration of saints. These practices provided accessible ways for laypeople to engage with their faith while remaining aligned with Catholic doctrine.

Impact of Trent

The Council of Trent reinforced the hierarchical structure of the Church, maintaining the clergy’s unique role as mediators of divine grace. However, its reforms addressed many of the issues that had previously marginalized the laity, fostering a more inclusive yet still distinctly Catholic approach to worship and spirituality. By improving clerical education, standardizing liturgical practices, and emphasizing preaching and catechesis, the Council sought to restore balance to the relationship between clergy and laity, ensuring the Church’s unity in the face of Protestant challenges.

Architectural implications of the council

The architectural implications of the Council of Trent’s reforms were profound, particularly regarding the role and presence of rood screens in Catholic churches. The Council’s emphasis on unity, participation, and the centrality of the Eucharist led to overall significant changes in church design and layout.

Liturgical changes and the decline of the rood screen

The Tridentine liturgical reforms emphasized the unity of worship and sought to enhance lay participation, albeit within the structured hierarchy of the Church. One significant aspect of these reforms was the unification of the high altar (previously located at the east end of the apse) and the cross altar (situated in front of the rood screen for the laity) into a single central altar. This restructuring reflected the new focus on the altar as the visual and spiritual center of the church, accessible to both clergy and laity.

Furthermore, the tabernacle, which housed the Eucharist and was placed on or near the new high altar, became the focal point of devotion. This development diminished the liturgical and symbolic significance of older architectural features such as the rood screen and the sacrament house (an earlier structure used to store the Eucharist). The tabernacle’s prominence underscored the presence of the divine in the church’s central space, further uniting the clergy and laity around the altar.

Removal and repurposing of rood screens

With the rood screen’s original function of dividing the sacred space rendered unnecessary, many were dismantled during the post-Tridentine era. This removal was particularly common in regions where Catholic reform was strongest, such as Italy and parts of Southern Germany. Rood screens that survived often lost their central importance, with their sculptural elements repurposed or relocated within churches. In rare cases, sections of the screens were preserved as decorative or historical artifacts, while others were destroyed entirely.

The removal of the rood screen opened up the view of the high altar, aligning with the Council’s objective to create a more unified and visually accessible worship space. This architectural shift facilitated greater lay engagement with the liturgy, allowing congregants to witness the Eucharistic celebration and other sacraments without the physical barrier that had previously symbolized their separation from the clergy.

Legacy and remaining examples

While many rood screens were lost during this period, a few examples, especially in Gothic churches in Northern Europe, were preserved. These remaining screens serve as historical artifacts, offering insight into the medieval Church’s hierarchical structure and liturgical practices. Today, such screens can often be found in museums or as carefully maintained elements of historical church buildings, providing a tangible link to the architectural and theological heritage of pre-Tridentine Christianity.

Conclusion

The medieval Church was defined by a profound hierarchical divide between clerics and laypeople, manifesting in its theology, architecture, and liturgical practices. This structure, which placed the clergy at the center (or top) of religious life as exclusive mediators of divine grace, relegated the laity to a largely passive and dependent role. The symbolic and physical barriers of architectural elements like rood screens reinforced this separation, visually embodying the clerical monopoly over sacred rites and spaces.

The tensions and criticisms arising from this system contributed to sweeping changes during the Reformation and the Catholic response in the Council of Trent. These transformations sought to address abuses, enhance lay participation, and create a more unified and spiritually engaging worship experience. The removal of rood screens and the architectural reconfiguration of churches reflected these evolving priorities, emphasizing accessibility to the sacred while maintaining the Church’s hierarchical structure.

I found it fascinating to explore how researching the history of an architectural element like the rood screen can illuminate a broader social, theological, and cultural dynamics within medieval Christianity. Learning more about the physical and symbolic significance of such structures offers valuable insights into the complexities of an era’s society and exposes possible misconceptions we may have about the past.

References and further reading

• Otto von Simson, The gothic cathedral: origins of gothic architecture and the medieval concept of order, 1984, Princeton Univ. Pr, ISBN: 9780691017891
• Georges Duby, Medieval Art - Europe Of The Cathedrals, 1140-1280, 1995, Verlag n/a, ISBN: 9782605003013
• Eamon Duffy, The Stripping Of The Altars, 2022, Yale University Press, ISBN: 9780300254419
• Thomas A. Fudgé, Medieval religion and its anxieties – History and mystery in the other Middle Ages, 2017, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN: 9781349931361
• Kevin Madigan, Medieval Christianity – A new history, 2015, Yale University Press, ISBN: 9780300216776
• Whitney S. Stoddard, Art and Architecture in medieval France – Medieval architecture, sculpture, stained glass, manuscripts, The art of the church treasuries, 1972, Westview Press, ISBN: 9780064300223
• Jill Caskey, Adam S. Cohen, Linda Safran, Art and architecture of the Middle Ages – Exploring a connected world, 2023, Cornell University Press, ISBN: 9781501702822
• Nicola Coldstream, Medieval architecture, 2002, Oxford University Press, USA, ISBN: 9780192842763
• Victor Witter Turner, Edith L. B. Turner, Image and pilgrimage in Christian culture, 2011, Columbia University Press, ISBN: 9780231157919
• Cornelia A. Tsakiridou, Icons in time, persons in eternity – Orthodox theology and the aesthetics of the Christian image, 2020, Routledge, ISBN: 9780367601768
• Wikipedia article on the Rood Screenꜛ
• Wikipedia article on the Waldensiansꜛ
• Wikipedia article on the Lollardsꜛ
• Wikipedia article on the Council of Trentꜛ
• Wikimedia article on the Roman Riteꜛ
• Wikipedia article on the Priesthood of all believersꜛ
• ARTE documentary “Die verborgenen Schätze von Notre-Dame” (YouTube)ꜛ